46 Science Fair

Projects for the

Evil Genius

Evil Genius Series

Bike, Scooter, and Chopper Projects for the Evil Genius Bionics for the Evil Genius: 25 Build-it-Yourself Projects Electronic Circuits for the Evil Genius: 57 Lessons with Projects Electronic Gadgets for the Evil Genius: 28 Build-it-Yourself Projects Electronic Games for the Evil Genius Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius: 54 Electrifying Projects 50 Awesome Auto Projects for the Evil Genius 50 Model Rocket Projects for the Evil Genius 51 High Tech Practical Jokes for the Evil Genius 46 Science Fair Projects for the Evil Genius Fuel Cell Projects for the Evil Genius Mechatronics for the Evil Genius: 25 Build-It-Yourself Projects MORE Electronic Gadgets for the Evil Genius: 40 NEW Build-It-Yourself Projects 101 Outer Space Projects for the Evil Genius 101 Spy Gadgets for the Evil Genius 123 PIC® Microcontroller Experiments for the Evil Genius 123 Robotics Experiments for the Evil Genius PC Mods for the Evil Genius: 25 Custom Builds to Turbocharge Your Computer Programming Video Games for the Evil Genius Solar Energy Projects for the Evil Genius 22 Radio and Receiver Projects for the Evil Genius 25 Home Automation Projects for the Evil Genius

46 Science Fair

Projects for

the Evil Genius

BOB BONNET

DAN KEEN

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DOI: 10.1036/0071600272

About the Authors

Bob Bonnet, who holds a master’s degree in He was employed in the field of electronics environmental education, has been teaching for 23 years, and his work included electronic science for over 25 years. He was a state servicing, as well as computer consulting and naturalist at Belleplain State Forest in New programming. Mr. Keen has written

Jersey. Mr. Bonnet has organized and judged numerous articles for many computer many science fairs at both the local and magazines and trade journals since 1979. He regional levels. He has served as the is also the coauthor of several computer chairman of the science curriculum

programming books. For ten years, he taught committee for the Dennis Township School computer courses in community education system, and he is a Science Teaching Fellow programs in four schools. In 1986 and 1987, at Rowan University in New Jersey.

Mr. Keen taught computer science at Mr. Bonnet is listed in “Who’s Who Among Stockton State College in New Jersey.

America’s Teachers.”

Together, Mr. Bonnet and Mr. Keen have had Dan Keen holds an Associate in Science many articles and books published on a degree, majoring in electronic technology.

variety of science topics for international Mr. Keen is the editor and publisher of a publishers, including McGraw-Hill.

county newspaper in southern New Jersey.

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

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Contents

Introduction

xi

PROJECT 7: Got Salt?

25

Comparisons of back bay salt content to PROJECT 1: Water, Water, Everywhere 1

tide cycles

The effect of fresh water and coastal salt water flooding on lawns

PROJECT 8: In the Ear of the Beholder 29

The physics and social classification of PROJECT 2: Who’s Home?

5

“noise”

Determining whether or not organisms other than birds live in birds’ nests PROJECT 9: Flying in the Wind

33

Wind velocity at ground level may be PROJECT 3: Go with the Flow

9

different at heights above the ground Lighthouses are cylindrically shaped, so they can structurally withstand high-PROJECT 10: Lighter Struts

37

velocity winds

Making materials lighter, yet still strong enough for the required need

PROJECT 4: Kinetic Pendulum

13

Examining the relationship between the PROJECT 11: Stock Up

41

arc distance a pendulum travels and the Concepts of stock market investing swing period time

PROJECT 12: A Better Burger

47

PROJECT 5: Melody Camouflage

17

Comparing the fat content in different Erroneously perceived sound while grades of ground beef

masked by noise

PROJECT 13: Caught in the Spotlight 51

PROJECT 6: “Vlip!”

21

Devising an insect-collection device, A pet dog responds to sounds rather and then evaluating the nocturnal insect than understanding the meaning of population in your area for health words

hazards

vii

PROJECT 14: Sweet Treat

55

PROJECT 23: Parallelogram Prevention 91

The behavior of ants toward natural and Simple bracing can greatly increase a artificial sugars

structure’s capability to maintain its shape under stress

PROJECT 15: C, a Fantastic Vitamin 59

The effect of boiling on the vitamin C

PROJECT 24: A Taste of Plant Acid 95

content of carrots

Determining if a vegetable has a more acrid taste if it has a higher pH

PROJECT 16: Zenith Is Not a Radio 63

Comparing the Sun’s daily zenith to the PROJECT 25: Split and Dip

99

time between sunrise and sunset Testing a strategy for making money in the stock market

PROJECT 17: Bold Mold

67

Environment affects the rate at which PROJECT 26: Johnny Applesauce

105

food spoils

Cinnamon: A mold inhibitor

PROJECT 18: M&M’s Ring Around PROJECT 27: Backfield in Motion

109

the World

71

The effect of an electromagnetic field on Determining the validity of sample size single-celled organisms

PROJECT 19: Choices

75

PROJECT 28: Green No More

113

Behavior: The position of an item will Concepts in chlorophyll

determine the selection by handedness (left hand/right hand) over color PROJECT 29: Not Just Lemonade

117

Determining if the addition of lemon to PROJECT 20: Plants Exhale

79

cleaning products is strictly for A plant produces more oxygen when marketing purposes

light intensity is increased

PROJECT 30: Less Is More

121

PROJECT 21: Melting Mountains

83

Determining if pH increases as standing Alluvial runoff from melting mountain rainwater evaporates

ice

PROJECT 31: Natural Fences

125

PROJECT 22: Sounds Fishy

87

Finding natural pesticide substances Determining if goldfish have water temperature preferences

PROJECT 32: The Nose Knows

129

Olfactory identification differences Contents

by age

viii

Contents

PROJECT 33: Germ Jungle

133

PROJECT 42: Flying, Walking, Crawling 169

Checking for the presence of bacteria on Natural bait to keep pests at bay during public surfaces

picnics

PROJECT 34: Not ’til Christmas

137

PROJECT 43: High-Tech Times

173

Determining adherence to instructions A study of the willingness of people in by gender

different age groups to adapt to new technology

PROJECT 35: Space Farm

141

The effect of artificial gravity on radish-PROJECT 44: Commercial TV

177

seed germination

A comparison of programming to

advertising content

PROJECT 36: Cooled Off

145

Comparison study between the cooling PROJECT 45: Sold on Solar

181

effect of evaporating water and alcohol The temperature in a climate as it relates to the amount of possible PROJECT 37: Pass the Mold

149

usable sunlight

A study on the capability of common bread mold to be transferred from one PROJECT 46: Getting to the Root

food to another

of the Problem

185

A study of the effect of low water on PROJECT 38: Hardwood Café

153

radish seedling root systems

Determining if bracket fungi are parasites or saprophytes

Index

189

PROJECT 39: Web Crawlers

157

Determining the effectiveness of various Internet search engines

PROJECT 40: Night Watch

161

Circadian rhythms: Training a house plant to be awake at night

PROJECT 41: Time for the Concert 165

A study of the effect of temperature on the chirping of crickets

ix

This page intentionally left blank Introduction

Welcome to the exciting exploration of the Generally, school science fairs have 12

world around us. . . the world of science!

standard categories under which students can Researching a project for entry into a science enter their projects: behavioral and social, fair gives us a glimpse into the marvels of biochemistry, botany, chemistry, Earth and this world.

space, engineering, environmental, physics, Participating in a science fair is not only zoology, math and computers, microbiology, enjoyable, but it also encourages logical and medicine and health.

thinking, involves doing interesting research, Some projects may involve more than one develops objective observations, and gives science discipline. A project that involves experience in problem solving.

using different colors of light to grow plants Before you do any project, discuss it in could fall under the category of either botany detail with a parent or science instructor. Be or physics. This crossing over of sciences sure they understand and are familiar with may allow you to choose between two your project.

categories in which to enter your project. It can give you an edge at winning a science Science fair projects must follow a fair by entering your project in a category procedure called the scientific method. This where there are fewer competitors or procedure is also used by actual scientists.

avoiding a category where other entries are of First, a problem or purpose is defined. A particularly outstanding quality.

hypothesis or prediction of the outcome is then stated. Next, a procedure is developed In this book, we present a wide variety for determining whether or not the hypothesis of project ideas for all 12 science fair was correct. Do not think that your science categories. Select a topic you find interesting, project is a failure if the hypothesis is proven one you would like to research. This will to be wrong. The idea of the science fair make your science fair experience a very project is either to prove or disprove the enjoyable one. Many projects in this book are hypothesis. Learning takes place even when merely “starters,” which you can expand on the results are not what you expected.

and then create additional hypotheses for.

Thomas Edison tried over a thousand Know the rules of your school’s science different materials before he found one that fair before you decide on a project topic.

would work best in his light bulb. Edison said Projects must follow ethical rules. A project he failed his way to success!

cannot be inhumane to animals. Never xi

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

interfere with ecological systems. Use what materials you are working with that common sense.

have extreme pH levels (acids, bases).

• Allergens: When growing mold in

sealable plastic bags, keep the bags Safety

closed during and after the project. When the project is over, discard the plastic When planning your science fair project, bags without ever opening them, so mold safety must be your first consideration. Even is contained and does not become

seemingly harmless objects can become a airborne.

hazard under certain circumstances. Know

• Carcinogens, mutagens: Stand

away

from

what potential hazards you are faced with microwave ovens when in use.

before you start a project. Take no

• Water and electricity don’t mix. Use unnecessary risks. Have an adult or a science caution whenever both water and

instructor present during all phases of your electricity are present (as with a fish tank project. Be prepared to handle a problem heater that must be plugged into a wall even though none is expected (for example, outlet). Use only UL-approved electrical keep heat gloves or oven mitts handy when devices.

you work around a hot stove). Wear safety glasses when appropriate.

• Heat: Use heat gloves or oven mitts when you deal with hot objects. When using a heat lamp, keep away from curtains and Be Especially Aware of

other flammable objects. Be aware that glass may be hot, but it might not give the These Hazards

appearance of being hot.

• Secure loose clothing, sleeves, and hair.

• Sharp objects: Construction tools (hammer, saw, knife, scissors, drill). Be

• Wash your hands. When you return home careful how you pick up sharp tools and after touching surfaces at public places, glass objects, which can fragment and be sure to wash your hands to avoid become sharp objects.

bringing bacteria into your home.

• Fire: Cooking fat can catch on fire;

• Rivers, lakes, oceans: Do not work near alcohol has a low flash point. To boil or around large bodies of water without alcohol, use a “double boiler.” First, bring an adult present, even if you know how to a pot of water to a boil. Next, turn off the swim.

stove burner. And then, lower a test tube

• Nothing should be tested by tasting it.

filled with alcohol into the water.

• Be aware of others nearby. A chemical

• Chemicals: Keep everything out of the reaction, for example, could cause a glass reach of children that specifies “keep out container to shatter or a caustic material of the reach of children” on the label to be ejected from a container. Keep Introduction

(alcohol, iodine, and so forth). Know xii

Introduction

others in the room at a safe distance or A good project is also one where the have them wear proper safety protection.

student has done a solid background study

• Thermometers made of glass have the and fully understands the project. It’s fine to potential to break and cause glass to have an adult or even a science professional shatter.

assist a student in their project, but a judge will expect the student to understand the

• Be aware of gas products that may be project and be able to articulate the work to created when certain chemicals react.

the judges and others attending a science fair.

Such projects must be carried out in a A project will be judged on its completeness.

well-ventilated area.

Students should look at their projects as if

• Never look directly at the Sun. Do not they are the judges and check for any use direct sunlight as a source of light for deficiencies. Presentation is important, but microscopes.

many science fairs weigh more heavily on the

• Loud sounds can be harmful to your science aspect of projects.

hearing.

Good luck with your project!

Being aware of these possible hazards and working with adult supervision should ensure a safe and enjoyable project experience.

What Makes a Good

Science Fair Project?

A good science fair project is either something that is unique or it is something that is already common, but done uniquely.

For example, many elementary students construct a small model of a volcano, and then use the reaction of vinegar and baking soda to make it “erupt.” Such a project could have a unique “twist” to it by hypothesizing that some other substance or chemical reaction would effervesce and give a better eruption.

xiii

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Project 1

Water, Water, Everywhere

The effect of fresh water and coastal salt water flooding on lawns

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

People often pay a high price to purchase

• Biochemistry

land and build a house along the coast, or along a scenic river or stream. The view is

• Botany

always magnificent; the fresh air and walking

• Chemistry

along the shore are especially healthy.

• Earth

Science

However, not only is the initial cost of real

• Environmental

Science

estate expensive, but so is property upkeep.

For coastal homes, the salt air and strong winds act as sand blasters to pit the metal on door knobs, window casings, and house paint. Coastal storms are an ever-present threat, too. Another risk for home owners living along rivers or oceans is flooding.

1

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

Even a small flood can damage the beautiful

•

Instant synthetic sea salt mix (available and expensive lawns around a home.

inexpensively from school science supply Is more damage done to a lawn by fresh catalogs)

water river flooding or coastal salt water

•

Water

flooding?

•

Grass seed

•

Potting soil

Hypothesis

•

Staple gun

•

Funnel

Hypothesize that more damage to lawns is

•

Scissors

caused by coastal salt water flooding than by

•

Kitchen measuring cup

the flooding of a fresh water stream or river.

•

Four empty plastic gallon milk or water jugs

Materials’ List

•

A warm, lighted area indoors, but not in direct sunlight

•

Two large dishpans

•

Several weeks of time, because we are

dealing with germination and growth

•

Several pieces of 1ϫ2 lumber

•

Small nails

•

Use of a hammer and hand saw

Procedure

•

Several feet of cheesecloth

Grass seed will germinate and grow in two wooden frames of potting soil. Both GRASS

SEED

Project 1: Water, Water, Everywhere 2

Project 1: Water, Water, Everywhere

“miniature lawns” will be kept next to each Pour an equal amount of seed into the cup, other to maintain the same environment, each and spread over the soil in the second frame.

receiving an equal amount of light and being Lightly cover the seeds with soil and moisten kept at the same temperature.

the soil in the frames.

The variable in this project is the exposure Make observations daily and keep the of one lawn to severe salt water flooding, and soil moist (but not soaked), watching for the other to fresh water flooding.

germination. Equal amounts of water should Locate two large rectangular dishpans, be given to each lawn frame. Allow the grass used for washing dishes.

to grow until the blades are around one to two inches tall. When that happens, continue With several pieces of 1ϫ2 wood and to the next step.

small nails (or screws), construct two rectangular frames that fit inside the dishpans. Cut a rectangular piece of cheesecloth to cover a frame. Staple the cheesecloth to the wooden frame, keeping it pulled tight. Repeat for the other frame. Now, turn the frames upside down and fill them with potting soil. The cheesecloth holds the potting soil in the frames, but it allows excess water to pass through.

Staples

Fill four 1-gallon plastic milk or water Cheesecloth

jugs with tap water. To two of the jugs, add a synthetic sea salt mix, as per the instructions on the package. These mixes are available at science shops and through science catalogs from your school science teacher. They are inexpensive. The mix contains all the essential major and minor elements to create a solution that closely matches ocean water.

Place the two dishpans in a warm, well-lit Remove the two wooden supports on one area, but not in direct sunlight. Across the top flat and lower it into the dishpan. Slowly, so of each dishpan, lay two pieces of wood, and you don’t cause erosion of the soil, pour the set a wooden frame over each one. The two gallons of salt water solution into the pieces of wood will support the frames over dishpan. Leave the water in the pan for one the dishpans. Pour some grass seed in a hour, and then pour it off. You can save the kitchen measuring cup, and then spread the solution by using a funnel and pouring it seeds out on the soil of one of the frames.

back into the bottles. Lift the frame out of the 3

dishpan and place the wood supports back under it, so the soil can drain.

Similarly, lower the other lawn frame into Something More

its dishpan and flood it with two gallons of fresh water. Let it sit for one hour, and then 1. If a lawn is killed by salt water pour off the water and place the supports flooding, can the home owner simply back under the frame.

replant grass seed on the lawn once the flooding has passed, or is the soil Allow the lawn frames to dry for two made unfit for growing new plants? If days. Make observations, looking for any the soil is unfit, how can it be cleared changes in grass (color, turgor, and so forth) of salt and made ready to support life Record your observations. If no differences again? Should a home owner turn on

are observed, repeat the flooding procedure his lawn sprinklers after a flood to on the third day. Then, again allow to dry for dilute and wash the salts and other three days. Continue to repeat the flooding materials left by the sea water?

and drying process until you see an observable difference.

2. Is one type of seed more tolerant of salt water flooding? This would be

important to know for landscapers and Results

home owners in seashore communities.

3. Does pouring salt in the cracks in a Write down the results of your experiment.

sidewalk or driveway kill any grass or Document all observations and data

weeds that grow there? If so, this

collected.

would be a safe way to kill unwanted weeds, because salt is not a hazard to people or pets.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

Project 1: Water, Water, Everywhere 4

Project 2

Who’s Home?

Determining whether or not organisms other than birds live in birds’ nests Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

The Earth is teeming with life. Just think how

•

Environmental Science

many things are alive within 100 feet of where you are right now: worms in the

•

Microbiology

ground, flowers, trees, grasses, an insect on a

•

Zoology

window screen, a microscopic mite on your pillow, mold on a piece of bread left uncovered in the kitchen, perhaps even a Purpose or Problem

family member in the next room. You may hear the peaceful singing of a bird building a The purpose is to determine if a bird’s nest is nest outside your window.

home to more organisms than just birds.

Birds lack the carpentry skills of humans, and they obviously don’t have the use of arms or hands. Yet, they are quite capable of 5

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

constructing nests that are structurally sufficient for the laying of eggs and raising Procedure

their young.

Nature provides all the nest-building Scout around the trees on your property or in materials a bird needs: twigs, feathers, animal your neighborhood and look for a bird’s nest hair, straw, moss, leaves, pebbles, blades of with baby birds inside. The nest must be grass, and even some items provided by within reach or able to be easily and safely humans—a piece of yarn, string, or paper.

retrieved (you don’t want one that is 50 feet Because nest building materials come in a tree top).

from nature, and life is abundant all around Once you locate a suitable nest, watch it us, do you think other things are living in once or twice a day, waiting for the day when birds’ nests besides birds?

the last baby bird leaves the nest. Do not get too close or disturb the nest in any way.

As soon as possible after you see all the Hypothesis

birds are gone and the nest is no longer used by the mother bird, carefully remove the nest Hypothesize that you can find other forms of and place it in a plastic bag.

life besides birds in a bird nest.

Take the nest home (or to school), but do not take it inside your house, just in case it contains insects or microscopic life that Materials’ List

would not be good to have inside your home.

Set the nest on a picnic table, a portable card

•

Bird nest containing baby birds

table, or on a workbench in a garage. To

•

Desk lamp that uses a standard 60 to 75

collect tiny insects that may be living in the watt incandescent bulb

nest, place a large-mouth funnel in a clear jar.

Then, set the nest in the mouth of the funnel.

•

Large funnel

Position a desk lamp over the top of the nest,

•

Clear jar about the size of a drinking but keep a space of several inches between glass

the lamp’s bulb and the nest to prevent the

•

High-power hand lens (magnifying glass) nest from getting hot. The incandescent bulb

•

Microscope

in the desk lamp should be about 60 or 75

watts. The heat from the bulb may drive any

•

Small plastic bag

insects down into the glass, as they try to

•

Ten petri dishes with agar

escape the heat. Leave the bulb on for one hour, and then carefully examine the glass for anything that has been collected. During the time the light is on, do not leave it unattended. Watch that the nest is not becoming too hot (to avoid a fire hazard and Project 2: Who’s Home?

6

Project 2: Who’s Home?

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

Something More

harming anything that may be living in the nest). Use a high-power magnifying glass to 1. Can you locate other similar nests in examine any material that falls into the jar.

your area that would indicate they

Attempt to identify the organisms using field were built by the same species of

guides and other reference materials.

bird? The mother bird, the structure of Next, check for the presence of smaller the nest, and the size and designs on organisms in the nest. Do this by taking ten the egg shells will help you identify pieces from different locations on the nest the species of bird using the nest. A and wiping them several times on agar in good book on birds will be necessary petri dishes. Cover the petri dishes and place to help you identify the species. Then, them in a warm, dark location. After two run the same tests as you did

weeks, examine each petri dish under a previously. Are the same organisms

microscope. Never open any of the petri found in these nests?

dishes once they have been closed.

2. What else did you find in the nest: Eventually, when the project is over, dispose leftover food, a piece of egg shell?

of the petri dishes, continuing to keep them 3. What is the composition of the nest?

sealed shut.

Can you identify other materials used making the nest?

4. How are nests adapted for rain? How are they adapted to ward off attacks from other animals?

7

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Project 3

Go with the Flow

Lighthouses are cylindrically shaped, so they can structurally withstand high-velocity winds Suggested Entry

Purpose or Problem

Categories

Lighthouses must be built along the coast and

•

Earth Science

they must be tall, but that subjects these structures to fierce winds. Builders have

•

Engineering

learned to make the shape of lighthouses

•

Environmental Science

round, causing air to flow around them with

•

Physics

less resistance, and allowing them to withstand strong winds.

9

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

than one with a flat surface facing the wind Overview

and, therefore, offers less resistance to wind.

Sea coasts are beautiful, but it’s not unusual for them to experience violent storms with Materials’ List

furious winds. Through the years, builders have had to take this environment into

•

Thirty-three (33) long straight pins

account when they design lighthouses. These

•

Spool of thread

unique buildings that have aided storm-driven

•

Piece of plywood 1 foot square

sailors for centuries must be constructed to withstand hard winds and weather.

•

Piece of balsa wood 1 foot square (or

Lighthouses are also used for identification several smaller pieces that can be laid by those at sea to help them get their side by side to cover a 1-foot-square area) bearings as to where they are in relation to

•

Glue

the coast, a shoal, or a safe harbor.

•

Ruler

A good defense against the wind is to

•

Pencil

offer as little resistance as possible and to

•

A cylindrically shaped object between

deflect the moving air past the structure, so it 3 and 31⁄2 inches in diameter (a glass jar or flows smoothly around it. Have you ever held a can of fruit—we recommend a

a large sheet of plywood and tried walking cardboard container for bread crumbs) with it on a windy day? Think about a sail on a sailboat; it presents a lot of resistance to the

•

Two pieces of 2ϫ4 lumber, each about

wind and uses the wind’s force to propel the 5 or 6 inches long

boat.

•

Hair dryer

A building with the shape of a cylinder

•

Pair of scissors

guides the air flow around it and allows the

•

Possible adult supervision needed

air to continue behind it. Such a structure can withstand higher winds, as it has less force than on a similar structure that catches the Procedure

wind. Therefore, you may have noticed from seeing pictures or visiting lighthouses that The constant in this project is the velocity of most of them are cylindrical in shape. Now the approaching air. The variable is the shape you know why!

of the object around which the air must flow.

For us to see the pattern of air flow Hypothesis

around an object, we must first construct a device that visually shows us the presence and direction of air flow (an “air flow table”).

Hypothesize that moving air flows more Obtain a piece of plywood that is at least 12

easily around a cylindrically shaped object Project 3: Go with the Flow

inches square. Glue a 12"ϫ12" sheet of balsa 10

Project 3: Go with the Flow

wood on top, or attach it by using several Secure two pieces of 2ϫ4 wood together, very small screws or nails. If you cannot get each about 5 inches tall (use glue, string, a single sheet of balsa wood that big, use screws, or nails). This makes a structure that several smaller pieces, lay them side by side, is almost square on four sides. Stand it and carefully cut them with a utility knife to upright in the empty space on the balsa form a 1-foot-square area. Use extreme board.

caution when you work with a utility knife.

Hold a hair dryer in front of the balsa Using a ruler, mark a grid pattern of lines board and aim it directly at the 2ϫ4 wood at 11⁄2 inch increments, both horizontally and block. Place the hair dryer on a setting that vertically, on the balsa wood. At the point blows the most air. If the hair dryer has a where each line intersects, carefully push a cool setting, use it, because heat is not long straight pin into the balsa wood with needed. Observe the pattern of the threads.

your thumb. As shown in the illustration, do Do the threads directly behind the block not put pins near the front of the board in the move?

locations covered by the shaded circle. This Remove the wood block and replace it is where the objects under test will be placed.

with a cylindrically shaped object that is about 31⁄2 inches in diameter. A large cardboard bread-crumb container works well.

12 inches

11/2 inches

12 inches

Balsa wood

glued onto

a piece of

plywood

Straight pins with

11/2 inches

11/2 inches of

Direction of

thread tied to

air flow

the top

With the hair dryer in the same position and at the same setting, do the directions of Tie thread onto each pin, and position it the threads look different? Do the threads near the pin’s head. Using scissors, trim the directly behind the cylinder now indicate a thread to a length of 11⁄2 inches. You can use a strong air flow?

small drop of glue on the pin to hold the thread securely in place. This is helpful if you plan to move the project from home to a classroom or a science fair.

11

Results

Something More

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

1. Experiment with structures of

collected.

different shapes (try a pyramid, for example). Observe the flow of air

around them.

Conclusion

2. Construct

a

stream table, a device

through which water can flow and

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not objects can be inserted to study how your hypothesis was correct.

shape affects the flow of water. Food coloring dye is dropped into that

water to better visualize the pattern of water flow. Prove that the behavior of the flow of water and the behavior of the flow of air around an object are similar because they are both “fluids.”

Project 3: Go with the Flow

12

Project 4

Kinetic Pendulum

Examining the relationship between the arc distance a pendulum travels and the swing period time Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

A pendulum is a weight hung by a tether (a

•

Math & Computers

rope, string, or rod) from a fixed point, and made to swing. When the pendulum is pulled

•

Physics

away from its motionless hanging state (perpendicular to the Earth), the weight gains potential or stored energy. When released, the Purpose or Problem

potential energy is turned into kinetic or working energy.

The purpose is to understand one of the Once released, the pendulum is pulled principles of pendular motion.

down toward the Earth by gravity, but it does not stop when it returns to the Earth’s perpendicular plane (called plumb). At that point, the moving pendulum has momentum 13

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

(mass multiplied by velocity), which causes it to continue to swing past the plumb point, Materials’ List

until the force of gravity slows it to a stop.

The pendulum then swings back through the

•

Two bowling balls of the same weight

plumb and up to the point where it was first

•

Two plastic bags with handles (used at released. This swing out and back is called grocery and retail stores)

one oscillation period. Then, once again, gravity continues its effect, and the pendulum

•

Rope

continues to swing back and forth.

•

String

If it were not for the friction with air

•

Child’s outdoor swing set

against the pendulum and the friction at the

•

Yard stick or tape measure

point where it is secured to a fixed point, the

•

Large, heavy metal washer

swinging would continue indefinitely.

•

A day with negligible or no wind

Many early scientists, including Lord Kelvin (1824–1907), Jean Foucault

•

A friend to assist

(1819–1868), and Galileo (1564–1642),

•

Possible adult supervision needed

devoted time to the study of the natural laws of pendular motion. Galileo was reported to note, while sitting in church, that a chandelier Procedure

swung with the same time period, regardless of whether it was swinging in a small arc or a The mass of the bowling balls, the tape large arc (the sermon must not have been measure, the length of the ropes, and the very interesting that day!). This project will environment (temperature, humidity, wind) attempt to prove this natural law of pendular are held constant. The distance each ball is motion discovered by Galileo.

pulled back from the plumb line is varied.

Find two bowling balls of equal weight and set each one in a plastic bag, the kind Hypothesis

used at grocery and retail stores to carry products home. Although these bags are very Hypothesize that the swing period of a thin, they are strong and have convenient pendulum with a fixed rope length is the handles. Bowling balls can be hazardous if same, regardless of the arc distance traveled.

they fall on your feet. Pay extra attention (Because of air resistance and other factors, and take safety precautions when you we will state this hypothesis is true for the work with the bowling balls. Place them on first five oscillation periods of our the ground, never on a table where they could constructed apparatus.)

unexpectedly roll off.

Tie a long piece of rope through the two handles on one of the bags. Tie another long Project 4: Kinetic Pendulum

14

Project 4: Kinetic Pendulum

weighted line that is perpendicular to the ground.

Pull one of the bowling balls back about four feet from the plumb line. Have your friend pull the other ball back about one foot.

On the count of three, both of you should let go of the balls at the same time. It is important for both of you to let go simultaneously.

Notice that even though your ball has farther to travel, it will cross over the plumb-piece of rope through the handles on the line point at the same time as the ball your other bag.

friend let go.

Tie a long piece of string onto a heavy Watch the balls swing through five

metal washer. From a child’s backyard swing periods, and note they are still hitting the set, tie the other end of the string to the top plumb line at the same time, proving the pipe, letting the washer hang about one or hypothesis correct.

two inches from the ground. Be sure the washer hangs freely and does not touch any Because of other variables, including of the swings.

friction with the air (one ball moves through more air than the other and, thus, experiences more friction), the balls may eventually stop meeting at the plumb point.

You may want to measure the distance the bowling balls travel by measuring the length of the arcs. When the ball is pulled back one foot from plumb, how many

degrees is the angle from plumb? How many degrees is the angle when the ball is pulled back four feet?

Similarly, tie the two bowling balls in their bags from the top pipe. Be sure they hang freely and do not touch any of the swings or each other. Using a tape measure, make the distance from the top pipe to the top of each bowling ball exactly the same length.

The washer on a string acts as a plumb line, also called a plumb bob, which is a 15

Results

Something More

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

1. A common natural law of gravity and collected.

astronomy (celestial mechanics) that also applies to pendulums is the

inverse-square law, which states the Conclusion

following: if one pendulum is twice as long as another, the longer one will have a period that is “one over the Come to a conclusion as to whether or not square of two,” or one fourth, as fast: your hypothesis was correct.

1

—–

4

Prove this expression by

experimentation.

2. Pendular mechanisms have been used throughout history to keep time.

Construct a pendulum that completes one period in one second (clue: the length of the string should be about 39.1 inches).

3. Research the work of the English scientist Lord Kelvin and his

discoveries with bifilar pendulums

(having two strings instead of one).

4. Research the work of the French scientist Foucault, who used a large iron ball on a wire to show that the Earth rotates.

5. Could you use pendulums or plumb lines to detect earthquakes or other vibrations in the Earth?

Project 4: Kinetic Pendulum

16

Project 5

Melody Camouflage

Erroneously perceived sound while masked by noise Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

Have you ever listened to a blank cassette

•

Behavioral & Social

tape on a stereo that had the volume set loud?

All you hear is a high-pitched hissing sound.

This “noise” is due to the nature of tape as a Purpose or Problem

recording medium.

“Noise” in the reproduction of audio is The purpose is to prove that often people unwanted sound caused by the tape and

“hear” what they expect to hear, even if the electronic components in the amplifier. This sound is not present.

hissing sound was not part of the original source material.

Tape hiss has plagued the music and audio industry for years. Today, electronics has advanced to the point that hiss caused by 17

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

electronic circuitry is almost nonexistent,

•

Electronic music synthesizer keyboard

especially on professional audio equipment.

with a white noise sound

Another technological breakthrough, the

•

20 friends and classmates

compact disc (CD), has made a tremendous

•

Stop watch or a clock/watch with a

advancement in reducing audible hiss in seconds display

recorded music.

A psychoacoustical masking effect takes place when music is played at high volumes.

Procedure

Noise such as tape hiss seems to disappear during loud passages of music.

The volume level of the white noise will be Another interesting behavioral effect is held constant. The volume level of the music that we sometimes hear what we expect to will be varied.

hear. In this project, we record music and You need to make a cassette tape with

“white noise” together, and then gradually which to test your subjects. The tape must reduce the music until only the white noise contain white noise recorded at a high remains. Will people claim to continue to volume, along with a song your test subjects

“hear” the music in the presence of white are very familiar with.

noise, even after it is turned off?

To do this, you need a source of white noise, such as a musical instrument Hypothesis

synthesizer keyboard, which has a white noise–like setting. Connect the synthesizer’s output into an audio mixer. Into another Hypothesize that, when tested, a greater channel of the mixer, connect the output of a number of your friends and classmates will cassette tape player. The output of the mixer continue to “hear” music even after the music must then feed another cassette recorder that has completely stopped, while the presence has a blank tape to record the results.

of a high level of white noise remains.

Materials’ List

Cassette player

Electronic music synthesizer

•

Stereo audio mixer

•

Blank cassette tape

Audio mixer

•

Headphones

•

Cassette player

•

Cassette recorder

•

Cassette tape of a popular song all your Project 5: Melody Camouflage

test subjects are very familiar with Cassette recorder

18

Project 5: Melody Camouflage

If you do not have access to an audio Test at least 20 friends, and write down mixer, you can use a musical instrument whether each one could correctly identify amplifier, such as a guitar amplifier, as long that the music ended before the tape as it has two separate input channels, each recording ended.

with its own volume control. Place two microphones (for left and right channels) by the amplifier’s speaker, and plug them into a Results

cassette recorder to record the results on a blank tape.

Write down the results of your experiment.

You will make a one-minute recording.

Cue the blank tape past the cassette’s leader (the plastic part of the tape at the beginning Conclusion

of the cassette). Set the volume of the white noise source fairly high. Set the volume of Come to a conclusion as to whether or not the music being played at about an equal your hypothesis was correct.

volume. Start the recorder, the white noise generator, the music tape, and a stop watch.

After ten seconds, slowly begin to turn the volume of the music tape down, but leave the white noise at a constant level. The music Something More

fade must be very, very slow. Pace yourself so that at 50 seconds into the song, the 1. Does age have any effect on your volume will be 100 percent reduced. At 60

results? In other words, do more

seconds, stop the tape recorder.

young people continue to “hear” the music when it is gone than do people Once you make your test tape, place it in over age 50?

a cassette player with headphones. Have a friend wear the headphones and tell him or 2. Does gender have any effect on your her to push the play button. Be sure you have results?

cued the tape up past the leader at the 3. People may claim to continue to hear beginning of the tape, so when the play button what they expect to hear, but what if is pressed, your test recording begins to play.

the music played to them was a song Start timing the instant the tape begins to they were not familiar with? Would play. Ask your friend to tell you as soon as he they still claim they were hearing

or she hears the music stop playing.

music when it was no longer playing?

Remember, at 50 seconds into the tape, the music is gone. Does the tape recording end (at 60 seconds) before your friend says the music has stopped? Does your friend say the music never stopped?

19

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Project 6

“Vlip!”

A pet dog responds to sounds rather than understanding the meaning of words

the animal, not because of any understanding Suggested Entry

of language.

Categories

Overview

•

Behavioral & Social

•

Zoology

Pet owners who train their dogs to obey several commands naturally use words in their own language. “Sit,” “bark,” and “roll Purpose or Problem

over” are words those who speak the English language understand. Although a dog may The purpose is to prove that a pet dog who is appear as though it understands the meaning trained to obey several commands, responds of commands, it is merely the sound of these to those commands because of association words that produces the appropriate behavior.

with the sounds and the action you want from 21

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If you can train your dog to respond to Hypothesis

these made-up words, only the two of you (and no one else in the room!) will Hypothesize that a dog can be trained to obey understand the commands.

several command words that are not words in Get a good book on how to properly train any language, proving the animal is merely your dog to obey voice commands.

associating a particular sound with a Just as most people like to be rewarded particular expected behavior.

for their achievements, so do your pets.

Rewarding (giving a hug or a treat) is the best motivation for your pet to learn.

Materials’ List

Start by giving three rewards when the dog’s response to a command is correct: give

•

Pet dog

a pat on the head, say “Good dog!” and give

•

Book on how to train your dog

a food treat. As time goes on, don’t give food

•

Time and patience training the dog to

every time. Eventually, just a pat or hearing obey several commands

the tone of your voice saying “Good dog!”

will be sufficient to let the pet know you are proud of it.

Procedure

Time and patience are needed to train your dog, but it will be fun for both of you.

Decide on several behavioral responses you The training will seem more like playing want to train your dog to accomplish (sit, together than work.

stay, run, bark, and so on). Then, make up your own words to substitute for these English words. “Vlip,” for example, could be Results

“sit.” Make up simple one-syllable words.

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

VLIP!

collected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

Project 6: “Vlip!”

22

Project 6: “Vlip!”

Something More

1. Children can be bilingual and learn two different words for the same

thing. This can happen when one

parent or grandparent speaks a

different language than the other

parent or family members. Can a dog learn more than one command for the same behavior?

2. Pet guinea pigs can be taught to squeal and rattle their cages at the sound of chopping carrots on a wood block, in their anticipation of

receiving carrot treats. Can they be trained to get equally excited by a voice command indicating a food treat is coming?

3. Dolphins learn to do tricks by

watching their trainers’ hand signals.

Can dogs learn commands by hand

signals only?

23

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Project 7

Got Salt?

Comparisons of back bay salt content to tide cycles Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

The gravitational pull of the Moon and the

•

Environmental Science

Sun creates a daily flow of water toward and away from sea coasts ( high tide and low

•

Earth Science

tide). As water flows toward the coast, the

•

Chemistry

water level along the shore can be seen to rise, and water flows through inlets, filling back bay areas. Hours later, an ebb tide Purpose or Problem

occurs, when the water recedes out of the bays and away from the shoreline.

Comparing salt content in back bay water Does this tidal change affect the salt during high tides and low tides.

content of the water that accumulates in the back bays? If a significant difference exists between the salt content at high tide and low 25

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

tide, plants and animals living there would flows from an ocean or a large body of salt have to be tolerant of these changes.

water. When you work around water, make safety your number one concern. Know how to swim, wear a life preserver, and Hypothesis

always have a friend or an adult accompany you.

Hypothesize that a noticeable difference will Gather four clear glass or plastic jars that occur in the salt content in back bay water have wide mouths. Jars of this type include depending on the cycle of the tide (high tide, 16- or 18-ounce peanut butter, pickle, or low tide).

sauce containers. All four jars must be identical.

Place a strip of masking tape on each jar Materials’ List

and label each one as to the location and tidal status that identifies the water sample they

•

Access to an inlet and bay areas that

will contain.

experience tidal changes, fed by an ocean You need to determine the time of high or a large body of salt water

and low tides. Tide tables are often found in

•

Four wide-mouth jars (peanut butter,

local marinas, newspapers, or by listening to pickle, or other food containers) of equal a National Oceanic and Atmospheric

size

Administration (NOAA) weather station

•

Masking tape

(weather radios can be purchased at many consumer electronic stores). If you do not

•

Pen or marker

have access to a tide table, you can spend a

•

About two weeks of waiting time

day making note of where the high- and low-

•

Several small twigs

tide levels are along bulkheads or other land

•

A sunny window

markings. Throwing a small twig in the water at an inlet and watching the direction it floats

•

Tide chart helpful, but optional

tells you whether the tide is flowing in or

•

Possible adult supervision needed

receding out.

The figure on the top of the next page shows two points where you should collect Procedure

water samples: one is located in a back bay area, and the other is at the mouth of the The amount of water gathered for each inlet, where the bay meets the ocean.

sample and the location the samples are taken When the tide is just beginning to flow in from remain constant. The tide cycle is the (just past the time of low tide), fill a jar with variable.

water from Point A and one from Point B.

For this project, you must have access to Secure lids on the jars to keep the water from an inlet and a back bay that receives tidal Project 7: Got Salt?

spilling as you transport them home.

26

Project 7: Got Salt?

POINT

by placing them in an area of increased heat,

“A”

such as near a heat duct or in an oven at a Back Bay

low temperature. Do not place the jars directly on a stove burner, as the jars are not designed to be exposed to high temperatures.

POINT

When all the water has evaporated, screw

“B”

To the Ocean

the lids on again to prevent any further Inlet

contamination and to keep the contents intact.

Do you see chunks of salt in the jars? Salts are crystals, and one of the characteristics of Later, when the tide is just beginning to crystals is their unique shapes. Do the chunks recede (just past the time of high tide), fill a have shapes characteristic of crystals? You jar with water from Point A and one from may also want to examine the salt chunks Point B.

under a magnifying glass or microscope.

[Optional: If you have access to two inlets that feed back bay areas, you can enhance your project by collecting additional samples Results

at points shown in the figure below.]

Write down the results of your experiment.

POINT

Document all observations and data

“C”

collected.

Back Bay

POINT

POINT

“A”

“D”

Conclusion

Inlet

Inlet

To the Ocean

POINT

To the Ocean

“B”

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

When you get home, place the jars in a warm, sunny window and remove the lids. It takes about two weeks for all the water to evaporate. You can decrease evaporation time 27

Something More

1. Is there a difference in salt content in water near the surface compared to

water at a deeper level? Construct a device that lets you lower a container to the bottom of the bay, and then

open the lid to fill it with water. (Use a brick or a heavy object to weigh

down the container.)

2. Does heavy rainfall affect the salt content in a back bay?

3. Is there any difference in salt content between the water in a back bay and the water in the ocean that feeds it?

Project 7: Got Salt?

28

Project 8

In the Ear of the Beholder

The physics and social classification of “noise”

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Some sounds are musical and some are noise.

•

Behavioral & Social

Music is usually made of vibrations that are organized and come to our ears at regular

•

Physics

intervals. A vibrating string on a guitar or a

•

Adaptable to Math & Computers

piano is an example. You can feel the vibrations of your vocal cords by placing your hand on your throat while you sing.

Purpose or Problem

Sounds that make irregular vibrations tend be thought of as noise. Such vibrations Defining “noise” can sometimes be explained are made when a door is slammed shut or a by the physics of a sound, but it can also be book falls from a desk to the floor.

in the mind of the listener, or it can even But, it is not always easy to classify a be determined by the society the listener sound as music or noise. The difference lives in.

29

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

the honk of their car horn is welcomed. But MUSIC!

NOISE!

someone honking a car horn in front of your house at 4 A.M. can be disturbing. A doorbell ringing during the day does not have the same alarming affect emotionally as it does if it rings in the middle of the night. When a mother knows why a baby is crying (if it needs a diaper changed or is hungry), her emotions are not the same as when she doesn’t know what is wrong.

between music and noise may be in the mind Some sounds always seem to be pleasant: of the listener. Young people’s music may be a babbling brook, the wind rustling leaves considered noise by their grandparents.

through the trees.

Hitting a fence with a stick may be noise, but We are surrounded by sounds all day if you walk along a picket fence and hold a long, and it is important that we have quiet stick against it, the regular repetitive sound times and enjoyable sounds in our daily lives.

may be pleasing, as a drum or other Too much noise can cause stress and fatigue.

percussion instrument would be.

Society also determines when a sound is musical. Do research into the unusual Hypothesis

instruments used in other cultures.

Have you ever listened to someone

Hypothesize that in the categorizing of squeaking as they learn to play the clarinet, common, everyday sounds as to whether they or screeching as they learn to play the violin?

are pleasant or noise, many different That’s hardly music!

responses will be based on the age group.

Perhaps we can classify sounds as being more musical if we enjoy them. A sound may even be pleasing at one moment, but not at Materials’ List

another. A doorbell may make a harmonious sound, but if it dings at 3 o’clock in the

•

Paper

morning and disturbs you while you are

•

Pencil

sleeping, you won’t like it. When music is

•

Clipboard

played softly, it may be enjoyable, but when

•

A day of listening

the volume is turned up to the point where it hurts your ears, the song becomes noise.

•

Ten friends of high-school age

The time of day may also affect your

•

Ten adults over age 40

feelings about a sound. If you are waiting for a friend to pick you up to go to the movies, Project 8: In the Ear of the Beholder 30

Project 8: In the Ear of the Beholder selection of Pleasant, Noise, and No Procedure

Response.

At the top of each sheet, make a place for The list of commonly heard sounds will be checking the two age groups: Tees and Over constant for all who are surveyed. The age 40. (You can also ask for male or female if groups of those surveyed will be varied: you want to do the “Something More”

teenagers and adults over 40.

suggestion.)

For one whole day, pay attention to all Use a copy machine to make 20 copies, the sounds you hear. Carry paper, a pencil, or use a computer word-processing program and a clipboard to make a list of all the daily or desktop publishing program to create your sounds around your home, school, and survey sheet, and print out 20 copies.

neighborhood. Some sounds you may not Have ten high-school-age friends and ten have paid much attention to before: for adults over age 40 complete the survey. Total example, toast popping up in a toaster, a door the results from each group. Compare the chime, a church bell, popcorn popping, a car responses by each group.

horn, the crackling of a fire in a fireplace, the telephone ringing, birds chirping, someone tapping a pencil on a desk, an umpire or Results

referee blowing a whistle during a sporting event, insects buzzing in your ear, the screech Write down the results of your experiment.

of car brakes, the blowing of air across the Document all observations and data

top of a soda bottle, or someone driving by in collected.

a car with your favorite song playing.

Compile a survey sheet with a list of 50

sounds, each followed by a multiple choice Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not Sample Survey Sheet

your hypothesis was correct.

Age Group:

Teens

Over 40

Check each sound as to whether that sound is pleasing,

“noise”, or neither to you.

1. A door bell ringing in the afternoon.

Pleasant

“Noise”

No response

2. A car driving by you as you sit outside your home, with its radio blasting.

Pleasant

“Noise”

No response

3. “Big Band” dance music.

Pleasant

“Noise”

No response

31

Something More

1. Expand your survey by categorizing your results by male and female, in addition to age. Compare your

organized data.

2. Sounds and songs may even bring memories to our minds. Hearing a

popular song that was once played

heavily on the radio may cause you to remember a special summer or time in your life. When you hear the sound of sleigh bells or a Christmas carol, does a feeling or picture come to your mind about snow falling or the excitement of waiting to open presents with

family?

Project 8: In the Ear of the Beholder 32

Project 9

Flying in the Wind

Wind velocity at ground level may be different at heights above the ground

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

The rotation of the Earth and differences in

•

Environmental Science

atmospheric temperature give birth to an inexpensive and renewable source of energy

•

Earth Science

… the wind.

Down through the centuries, wind has Purpose or Problem

been a powerful source of energy that mankind has harnessed to do work. The wind fills the sails of ships and turns the blades of The purpose is to determine if wind speed is windmills, which once were used to grind different at ground level compared to 30 or grains and saw wood, and today are used for 40 feet above ground.

generating electricity.

33

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Studying the behavior of the wind is one of the most important aspects of meteorology, Procedure

and it leads to a better understanding of weather and weather forecasting.

The location of the flagpole, the height of Is the speed of the wind different at each ribbon wind indicator, and the ribbon different heights above the ground? Have you indicators themselves are constant. The wind ever been sitting on the ground and, while speed is the variable.

you only felt a slight breeze, you could see Get permission to use a tall flagpole that the tops of very tall trees swaying in what is away from buildings and other structures.

appeared to be a stronger wind? Are the Sometimes, local businesses will have high blades of windmills built up high because it flagpoles for promotion. Your school may is usually windier up high than it is near the also have a tall flagpole.

ground?

Cut three 3-foot lengths of ribbon, the kind used for decorative craft work. The ribbon should be about 2 inches wide.

Hypothesis

Tie the three pieces of ribbon onto the rope that hoists up the flag. Space the ribbons Hypothesize that the wind is often stronger at so that when the rope is pulled up, one ribbon a higher distance from the ground.

will be at the top, one at the middle, and one at the bottom of the pole.

Materials’ List

•

Nine feet of ribbon, 2 inches wide

•

One-week period of time

•

Several clip-type clothespins

•

Use of a high flagpole

•

Pencil and sketch pad

•

Use of a camera (optional, but useful in making a science fair presentation)

•

Possible adult supervision needed

Every day at the same time for seven days, observe the position of the ribbons. Use a sketch pad to record your observations. The ribbons will give a relative indication of wind Project 9: Flying in the Wind

34

Project 9: Flying in the Wind

speed. The straighter they stand out (parallel to the ground), the stronger the wind speed.

If there is a day when no wind is blowing Something More

and none of the ribbons are moving, do not record an observation. Instead, wait until 1. Compare your ribbon wind indicators another day when there is enough wind to at different times of the day: early move at least one of the ribbons.

morning, noon, and dusk.

If stormy conditions exist, do not record 2. Can you determine any relationship your observations. Being outdoors in bad between the strength or direction of weather is unsafe, especially during a the wind and a barometer reading and thunderstorm.

the type of clouds?

If the wind is very strong during one of your observation days, and all three ribbons are standing out straight, try adding weight equally to all of them, so they will not all stand out straight. Weight can be added by clipping one or more alligator-type clothespins to each ribbon.

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

35

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Project 10

Lighter Struts

Making materials lighter, yet still strong enough for the required need

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Many times a material needs to be very

•

Engineering

strong, because it will undergo a lot of stress or pressure. Sometimes, a material must be

•

Math & Computers

made from a strong substance, like steel, but it may also have a requirement of being as light as possible. Some bones in birds are Purpose or Problem

strong, yet they are hollow to make them light. The struts used in aircraft often have Determining the safety stress range of a 2ϫ6

large holes in them to make them lighter, yet piece of balsa wood, while making it lighter they must still be strong enough for the job in weight.

they are required to do.

37

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Design engineers must know how much

•

Screwdriver (or electric screwdriver)

force a material can withstand before

•

Hand saw (or a power saw used under breaking, and whether or not that material adult supervision)

can be made lighter by cutting holes in it, yet

•

Gram weight scale

still being able to support the weight needed.

•

Bathroom scale or scale to measure

While engineers may need a certain

pounds

material for its strength, the material may be able to withstand much more stress than

•

Utility knife

required. Therefore, they can reduce the

•

Pitcher of water

mass (weight) of the material by cutting

•

Ruler

holes in it. A margin of safety must also be

•

Possible adult supervision needed

included to ensure a safe design. For example, if 2 pounds of stress is to be exerted on a material, you may want that material to Procedure

be able to withstand 6 pounds before it breaks, giving you a two-thirds margin of safety.

The wooden box device that holds the balsa wood in place is held constant, as is the water jug device for adding weight to stress the Hypothesis

balsa wood. The mass of the piece of balsa wood is the variable.

Hypothesize that you can lighten a piece of Cut two pieces of thin balsa wood,

balsa wood by cutting holes in it, while still 2 inches wide by 6 inches long, and set these keeping much of its structural strength.

strut-like pieces aside.

Cut two pieces of 2ϫ4 lumber in 6-inch lengths. Cut two rectangular pieces of Materials’ List

plywood into pieces 1 foot wide by 6 inches deep.

•

Plastic gallon jug

Using screws, attach one piece of

•

Two-foot-long piece of strong string

plywood to the top of a wooden sawhorse.

Using that as the bottom piece, make a

•

Wooden sawhorse

rectangular box by using the 2ϫ4 pieces for

•

Two pieces of balsa wood, 2 inches wide by 1 foot long

•

Piece of 2ϫ4 lumber about 12 inches

long

•

Two pieces of plywood about 1 foot by

6 inches

Project 10: Lighter Struts

•

Wood screws

38

Project 10: Lighter Struts

sides and the remaining piece of plywood for Engineers need to know weights,

the top. Leave two sides of the box open.

percentage relationships, strengths, and other Using a utility knife, cut a small V-shaped important factors about a material. Use the notch on one of the long sides of the balsa data you have determined by experimentation wood near the end of the wood.

to compile stress data on the 2ϫ6 pieces of balsa wood. The fact sheet you compile Stand the balsa wood vertically and insert should include these figures:

one end into the opening of the box to a depth of 1 inch. Position the balsa wood so the end with the notch in it is outside the box

•

Weight of the solid balsa wood piece (use and facing upward.

a gram weight scale):_____

Tie both ends of a 2-foot-long piece of

•

Weight of the lightened “swiss cheese”

strong string to the handle of an empty balsa wood piece:_____

plastic gallon jug, making a loop. Hang the

•

Breaking weight of the solid balsa wood jug from the balsa wood by placing the loop piece: _____

of string in the notch.

•

Breaking weight of the lightened “swiss cheese” balsa wood piece: _____

•

Percent lighter the lightened strut is to the solid strut (the weight of the lightened piece divided by the weight of the solid piece, times 100 for percent):_____

•

The percentage of weight the lightened piece breaks at compared to the solid piece (breaking weight of the lightened piece divided by the breaking weight of Slowly add water to the jug until the the solid piece, times 100 for

balsa wood breaks. Weigh the water in the percent):_____

jug and record this weight. (If the weight of a full jug is not enough to break the wood, tie a

•

The maximum weight the lightened piece second jug to the first one and begin adding can safely support, the safety margin water to it.)

being two-thirds beyond what is required (breaking weight of the lightened piece Take the second piece of balsa wood and divided by one-third):_____

cut a series of holes in the wood, each spaced at equal distances. Each hole should be 1 inch in diameter.

Perform the same weight test. Record the amount of weight needed to break the “swiss cheese” balsa wood strut.

39

Results

Something More

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

If the balsa wood was twice as thick, collected.

would it be able to hold twice the weight?

Laminate two pieces of balsa wood

together with wood glue. Let dry and test.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

Project 10: Lighter Struts

40

Project 11

Stock Up

Concepts of stock market investing

Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

Every time you buy something, whether it is

•

Math & Computers

a can of soda, a pack of gum, or a pair of sneakers, you are helping a company grow and increase its earnings. Many big Purpose or Problem

companies are publicly traded, that is, individual investors can buy stock in that company and actually own a small piece of The purpose is to serve as an introduction to it. When a company does well, the

stock market investing, and to develop an stockholders may benefit from the company’s enthusiasm for saving and investing.

prosperity by receiving a dividend (a cash payment) or by the value of their stock increasing.

41

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

There is a lot to learn about investing in Two developments took place in the last the stock market, but it is something all of us three years of the 1990s that enabled the should do during our lifetime. A portion of average person to easily and cheaply get into our hard-earned money should be at work in the stock market. The first was the explosive the stock market, earning us even more growth of the Internet and computers, money. We must learn ways to get the money enabling almost every home to be able to we earn to grow. Putting money in a afford a computer and be connected to the passbook savings account or a bank

Internet. The second development was the certificate of deposit (CD) is a common way appearance of high-discount Internet brokers.

to invest. Although these forms of

Previously, an investor might have to pay investments are very safe (there is little $100 or more in commission fees to buy chance you will lose your principal), they stock. Using the Internet, a transaction can generally do not give a very high return cost as little as $8, making it very affordable on your investment, perhaps paying only to the masses.

2 percent to 6 percent annually. The stock In this project, you gain valuable

market has always been a place where an experience learning about the stock market.

individual can get a much higher return on You will do paper trades (pretend trades as the money invested. The catch is this: opposed to trading with real money). We although the stock market has always hope this will give you a better understanding performed well over time, it can suffer and insight into the stock market, and make temporary drops, and investors can lose the you excited about saving and investing!

money they have invested. For that reason, many people invest in a mutual fund, where a professional money manager studies

Hypothesis

companies and their stocks, and makes buying and selling decisions for you and Hypothesize that given an imaginary $10,000

many other people who have their money in to invest, you can select stocks to buy and the mutual fund.

sell, and build your initial investment by 10

However, there is a thrill of picking a percent within three months.

stock yourself and watching it on a daily basis. While you should have a portion of your money invested long term (10 to 20

Materials’ List

years) in the stock market, it can be exciting and often profitable by “playing” the market

•

Computer with an Internet connection

for the short term. To do this will require a little time every day studying the financial

•

Daily financial newspaper ( The Wall newspapers and watching the financial news Street Journal or Investor’s Business on television, and using the Internet to find Daily)

company news and track your stocks.

•

One or two books on an introduction to Project 11: Stock Up

the stock market

42

Project 11: Stock Up

•

Three months’ time

swept into a money market account by

•

Calculator

your broker. Calculate the daily income from that uninvested money and add it to

•

Paper and pencil

your three-month total. (4 percent divided by 365 days in a year is about .01 percent per day earned on the uninvested

Procedure

balance.)

4. At the end of three months, sell all your Go to a bookstore or your local library and stocks. Total their value and add any read one or two books on an introduction to other profit you made from the selling of the stock market. Become familiar with some stock during the three-month period. Add of the terms you encounter.

money market interest. Subtract any Pick up a copy of a daily financial losses you incurred by selling a stock that newspaper ( The Wall Street Journal or was underperforming.

Investor’s Business Daily) and browse 5. You must maintain at least six stocks in through it.

your portfolio at all times. This will give In the project, the initial capital invested you diversity, which lowers your risk of is constant. The stocks in your portfolio (you losing money by not “putting all your can buy and sell them anytime during the eggs in one basket,” in case one stock three-month period) and the fluctuations of takes a big drop.

the stock market are variables.

These are the rules of our short-term To select the initial six or more stocks to trading portfolio:

begin your portfolio, you need to make a list of potential stocks to invest in. Start by 1. You have $10,000 initially to invest. If writing down the names of companies whose any of your stocks increase in value and products you like or use. Do you like to you sell them at a profit, you can use the collect Disney toys? Do you like to drink extra money to buy shares of another Pepsi Cola? Is McDonald’s your favorite stock.

hamburger stop? Is your hobby surfing or rollerblading?

2. You can buy and sell any stock at any time. However, assume there is a

Once you have a list of about ten

commission fee of $10 for every

companies, do research on each one. The transaction. When you buy a stock, add Internet has hundreds of free web sites where $10 to the total cost. When you sell a you can get information on a company, stock, subtract $10 from the profit you including a profile, fundamentals (the highest receive.

and lowest stock price for the year, Price to Earnings (P/E) Ratio, number of average 3. Any money left over from the $10,000

daily shares traded, and so forth), and a price that is not invested in stock is assumed to chart showing the history of the stock.

make 4 percent annual interest, as it is 43

dip, don’t panic and sell all your stocks. As Internet Web Sites For

long as there is no change to the fundamentals Free Stock Market Research

of your individual companies, stay the course.

http://quote.yahoo.com

At times, there will be important news on

www.askresearch.com

your companies that will affect their price.

www.bigcharts.com

www.cnbc.com

One of the biggest factors that affects the

www.freerealtime.com

price of stock is quarterly earnings, and you

www.iqc.com

should pay close attention to earnings’

www.marketwatch.com (CBS)

www.schwab.com

estimates.

www.stocksites.com

As you follow your stocks daily, you can

www.stocktools.com

www.vectorvest.com

learn about the factors that affect a stock’s price: earnings, selling off a division of the company, acquiring other companies, Studying a chart is called technical announcing a stock split, and expanding analysis and, although a stock’s history is no overseas operations.

guarantee of what will happen in the future, it You can also get ideas for your initial often gives a good indication of which portfolio list by reading financial newspapers direction the stock is likely to be headed. If a and magazines. Also, be observant of chart shows a stock price has been dropping products around you. What brand of shoes for the last three months, it is probably a are most of your friends buying? Where are company you want to avoid.

they buying their school clothes? Who makes The Internet, daily newspapers, and your favorite computer games?

financial TV programs are good sources for hearing news about your companies. This requires daily monitoring. If a cold winter is Results

expected, that might be an opportunity to invest in coat manufacturers. If a company is Write down the results of your experiment.

being sued, whether it is in the right or not, this can put a drag on the stock until the matter is settled.

Conclusion

The whole market goes up and down, and it can carry stocks with it. The stock market is Come to a conclusion as to whether or not controlled by perceptions of the investment your hypothesis was correct.

“crowd.” The least little thing can drive the market up or down. If the President stubs his big toe, the market may drop. But in such cases, it will probably bounce back up.

During times when the whole market takes a Project 11: Stock Up

44

Project 11: Stock Up

Something More

1. Generally, financial

advisors

recommend buying a stock and

holding it for a long time to get the most benefit. Continue your project for six months or even one year. Do your stocks do better over time?

2. Get a book on an introduction to the options market. Set up a portfolio of stocks and paper trade writing covered calls, buying Call options, which

represent the investor’s right to buy stock, and selling Put options, which represent the investor’s right to sell stock.

45

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Project 12

A Better Burger

Comparing the fat content in

different grades of ground beef

Suggested Entry Category

Overview

•

Chemistry

Fats are substances found in animals and some vegetables. Fats are used by the body for energy. When the body’s demand for heat Purpose or Problem

increases, as it does during the winter or in cold climates, more fat is required by the The purpose is to compare the fat content of body. Eskimos, for example, consume a great different grades of ground beef. Too much fat amount of fat in their diet. When more fat is in our diet may be unhealthy, especially if we eaten than the body currently needs for do not get enough exercise. We should be growth or energy, the fat is stored in tissues.

aware of fat in the foods we consume, so we Fats are made up of carbon, hydrogen, can make healthier choices when purchasing and other elements. The carbon and hydrogen such items as ground beef (lean or extra lean) give fats their capability to give off huge and milk (whole or skim).

amounts of heat. Have you ever cooked 47

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

chicken still in its skin on a barbecue grill? If so, you probably noticed that when the Procedure

chicken fat fell into the fire, it caused a flare-up of flames.

Fats can be liquefied by heat. When you fry bacon in a pan, you have no doubt noticed all the fat that appears in the pan. Heating bacon Hypothesis

in a microwave oven yields the same result.

The mass of each meat patty, the cooking Hypothesize there is significantly more fat in time, and the amount of water used for standard ground beef than in ground beef boiling are all constant. The fat grade of labeled extra lean.

ground beef is the variable.

Obtain three small packages of ground beef, one simply labeled “ground beef,” one Materials’ List

labeled “lean,” and one labeled “extra lean.”

From each package of meat, mold a

•

Adult supervision (exercise caution hamburger-shaped patty. Use a small kitchen around a hot stove)

scale to make sure each patty weighs the

•

Package of ground beef

same.

•

Package of lean ground beef

•

Package of extra lean ground beef

•

Spoon

•

Small cooking pot

•

Kitchen gram-weight scale

•

Three paper plates

•

Water

•

Measuring cup

•

Clock or watch

•

Pencil and paper

•

Use of a kitchen stove

Place the first patty in a pot and put it on a stove burner. Add one or two cups of water

•

Use of a refrigerator

as needed to completely cover the patty.

Record the amount of water added.

Note the time on a clock or watch. Turn the burner on its highest heat setting. Bring the water to a boil. Carefully break up the patty into small pieces as it is boiling, so the Project 12: A Better Burger

48

Project 12: A Better Burger

boiling water can reach all parts of the meat.

Use extreme caution when working around Results

boiling water. The heat will extract the fat from the meat, and the fat will rise to the top Write down the results of your experiment.

of the water.

Document all observations and data

After several minutes of boiling, turn the collected.

burner off and note how much time has passed on the clock.

Weigh a paper plate on a kitchen gram Conclusion

weight scale and record the weight.

Place the pot and its contents in a Come to a conclusion as to whether or not refrigerator. As the fat cools, it will coagulate your hypothesis was correct.

(change into a thickening mass). After the coagulated fat has cooled for several hours, scoop it off the top with a spoon and place it on the paper plate. When all the fat is on the Something More

plate, weigh it. Subtract the weight of the paper plate (the tare weight) to determine the 1. Compare the fat content in meat weight of the collected fat.

mixtures (beef and pork are often sold Clean out the pot and repeat the process together).

for each of the remaining two grades of 2. Ground beef that contains more fat ground beef. Use an equal amount of water to may not be as healthy, but is it tastier?

boil each patty and boil each for the same length of time.

Compare the weights of the fat collected from each grade of meat. Is the amount of fat significantly less in the extra lean grade than the other grades?

You know the original weight of the patties and the weight of the collected fat.

What percentage of each patty was fat?

Divide the fat weight by the patty weight and multiply by 100.

49

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Project 13

Caught in the Spotlight

Devising an insect-collection device, and then evaluating the nocturnal insect population in your area for health hazards

Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

To many of us, insects and bugs are merely

•

Medicine & Health

pests, getting in our food at a picnic or giving a bite that makes us hurt or itch. However, some insects can be very harmful to humans, Purpose or Problem

even causing death. Many people are allergic to bee stings. Ticks can carry Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever.

Insects can carry and transmit diseases that Mosquitoes can spread deadly diseases, are harmful and even life-threatening for including malaria and yellow fever. It is humans. We should be aware of the types of important to know what species of insects insects in the area we live in and know how live in your community.

to protect ourselves from them.

This project attempts to collect a

representative sample of the type of insects in 51

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

your area. First, several devices for collecting

•

Scissors

insects will be constructed and tested. Then,

•

Marker pen

the successful collecting device will be used

•

Possible adult supervision needed

to gather insects, which can then be studied, identified, and researched to see if they might be a potential health hazard to humans.

Procedure

Respect for all forms of life is imperative.

Therefore, only a short period of time will be First, we must construct a device that will allowed to collect insects to have a minimal collect a sampling of nocturnal insects. To do effect on the environment and to prevent the this, we will construct four different devices needless loss of insect life.

and test them to see which is the most successful. Cut the top and bottom off four 2-liter plastic soda bottles, leaving just the Hypothesis

hollow cylinders. Use caution when working with sharp scissors.

Hypothesize which of the four insect-collecting devices you have constructed will collect the most insects during a given amount of time. Also, hypothesize that you will collect more than ten different organisms.

Materials’ List

•

Book on entomology (a branch of zoology that deals with insects) to help you identify the insects you collect

•

Four 2-liter plastic soda bottles

•

Four wide-mouth jars

Find an outdoor location around your home or neighborhood that is safe, but away

•

Two flashlights

from strong lights. On the ground, set up the

•

Clock or watch

four plastic cylinders. Place flashlights inside

•

Outdoor area away from bright lights in two of them, with the beam facing straight the evening

up.

•

Black construction paper

On top of each cylinder, set a wide-mouth

•

Adhesive tape

jar. Keep the lids screwed on the jars.

•

Magnifying glass

Project 13: Caught in the Spotlight 52

Project 13: Caught in the Spotlight Fill one of the jars that is over a flashlight Which device collected the greatest half full of water. Next, fill one of the jars quantity of insects? Was your hypothesis that does not have a flashlight underneath correct?

half full of water.

Using a book on insects, identify the Using black construction paper and

insects collected. Research more about each adhesive tape, wrap each cylinder and jar insect and create a fact sheet on each, with the paper, so light from the jars that including information on whether or not they have a flashlight underneath them will only are harmful to pets or humans, and, if so, shine out of the top.

why they are harmful.

Results

Wide mouth jar

Write down the results of your experiment.

Piece of black

construction paper

Water

Document all observations and data

collected.

2-liter plastic

bottle with top

and bottom

Conclusion

cut off

Flashlight

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

When it’s dark, turn on the flashlights and remove the lids from the jars. The size of the jar openings, the location, the time of night, and the period of time the collectors are exposed are the constants in the experiment. The variables are light and water.

After one hour, screw the lids back on the jars, and then turn off the flashlights. With a marker, label the lids of each jar as “Dry, no flashlight,” “Dry, with flashlight,” “Wet, no flashlight,” and “Wet, with flashlight.” Then, take the jars inside.

53

Something More

1. Did the unlit dry collector attract different insects than the lit wet

collector?

2. Construct several of the insect-collecting devices that were the most successful at attracting insects. Give one to each of several friends who live in different locations in your

community. Have them all expose

their collectors for the same period of time during the same evening.

Examine both the quantity and type of insects collected. Does one location have a higher insect population than another? Why? Are the same types of insects found at all locations?

3. Are different types of insects active at different times of the night? Collect insects just after dusk and just before dawn (when it is still dark).

Project 13: Caught in the Spotlight 54

Project 14

Sweet Treat

The behavior of ants toward

natural and artificial sugars

Suggested Entry

Purpose or Problem

Categories

If an organism is attracted to a food source

•

Behavioral & Social

that is not nutritional and changes its diet from eating the type of food it needs to a

•

Chemistry

food that is not nutritional, its health may be

•

Medicine & Health

put at risk. For example, people sometimes

•

Environmental Science

throw stale pieces of white bread out in their

•

Zoology

yard for birds to eat. But, white bread does not have the nutrition birds need, and they may fill their bellies with a less-than-“good”

food.

55

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

natural sugar, even though the artificial Overview

sweeteners taste hundreds of times sweeter.

Almost everyone enjoys eating sweet foods.

Although sugar is the most commonly used Materials’ List

sweetener, it has been associated with health problems, including tooth decay, obesity, and

•

Table sugar

hyperactivity in children. People with health

•

Brown sugar

problems related to sugar could be diabetic or

•

Saccharin artificial sweetener

they might be trying to lose weight, and they’re looking for sugar substitutes to use in

•

Aspartame artificial sweetener

their foods.

•

One-fourth teaspoon measuring spoon

Today, two popular artificial sweeteners

•

Magnetic compass

are sold in grocery stores, namely saccharin

•

Anthill with active ants

and aspartame. Neither of these sweeteners

•

Wooden ice-pop sticks or tongue

has any nutritional value, whereas natural depressors

sugar is a carbohydrate that provides energy for your body. Artificial sweeteners are not

•

Ruler

used by the body and pass through

•

Pen or felt tip marker

unchanged.

•

Three days of time

The natural sugar found on your kitchen

•

Stiff piece of cardboard

table is called sucrose, and its chemical

•

Scissors

symbol is C H O .

12

12

11

Aspartame is 200 times sweeter than sugar, and saccharin is 500 times sweeter.

Procedure

Will ants be attracted to these useless food sources because they are sweeter? Or, will Locate an active anthill in an area where you nature prevail and their instinct be able to can safely make observations from a distance detect that the false sugars are nutritionally of several feet. The terrain around the anthill empty?

should be fairly consistent. Do not use an anthill that is bordered on one side by grass and on the other side by a sidewalk. Be sure Hypothesis

grass or soil surrounds the hill out to several feet.

Hypothesize that the instinct in ants is Observe the anthill for one day to learn intelligent enough that when offered natural when the ants are most active: early morning, sugar (which has nutritional value) and late morning, afternoon, early evening, and artificial sweeteners (which have no so forth.

nutritional value), the ants will take the Project 14: Sweet Treat

56

Project 14: Sweet Treat

Once you discover an active time for the In front of the East stick, make a pile of ants, set up four piles of sugar and sugar brown sugar on the cardboard, again using a substitutes as explained in the following, just level 1⁄4 teaspoon of brown sugar.

prior to that time on the next day.

Similarly, place saccharin and aspartame Using a magnetic compass, locate North, piles at the South and West markers.

East, West, and South directions, with the The piles are placed on pieces of

anthill at the center. With a pen or felt tip cardboard, so at the end of the day, they can marker, write NORTH, EAST, WEST, and be removed.

SOUTH on each of four wooden ice-pop Observe the ants as closely as possible, sticks or tongue depressors. With a ruler and but do not get so close as to affect their zero at the center of the anthill (be careful behavior.

not to touch or disturb the anthill), place the stick marked NORTH six inches from the Are the ants attracted to any of the piles?

center and to the north of the anthill. Push the If so, which ones?

stick into the ground, so it stands vertically as On the third day, place the pieces of a marker.

cardboard with the piles by the marker sticks, but this time rotate them, so the sugar is east of the anthill, the brown sugar is located to TH

the south, and so on. Observe the ants’

NOR

behavior. Are they still attracted to the same piles, even though the piles are in a different place?

If they are, then we can be assured that the location of the piles was not a factor in determining which pile the ants were attracted to, thus eliminating the variables of Similarly, measure and push into the terrain (uphill, downhill, easier path to ground direction-identifying sticks six inches navigate, and so forth), the position of the to the east, south, and west of the mound.

Sun, and the location from the hill (north, Cut four small squares (about 2 or 3

east, and so forth).

inches square) out of a piece of stiff cardboard or oak tag. Lay one square in front of each of the ice-pop sticks.

Results

On the piece of cardboard in front of the North stick, use a level 1⁄

Write down the results of your experiment.

4 teaspoon of sugar

to make a small pile of table sugar.

Document all observations and data

collected.

57

Conclusion

Something More

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

1. Move the piles of sugars five or six feet from the anthill opening. Does this project then yield a different result?

2. How do ants behave when offered other natural sweet substances? Honey and maple syrup, for example, are

often used as a substitute for sugar in baking and other food preparations.

3. If the ants eat the nonnutritious sweeteners, how does it affect other organisms that eat the ants?

4. Large marking pens have a very

strong smell. Will the marker odor

cause a change in behavior of the

ants?

Project 14: Sweet Treat

58

Project 15

C, a Fantastic Vitamin

The effect of boiling on the vitamin C

content of carrots

the food, for example) may cause vitamin C

Suggested Entry

to leave a food.

Categories

Overview

•

Chemistry

•

Medicine & Health

Vitamin C (its chemical name is ascorbic acid) is one of the most important vitamins our bodies need, not only to stay alive, but Purpose or Problem

also to keep in optimum health. Vitamin C is necessary in the formation of collagen, which We must have vitamin C to live, but our is used to maintain skin, bones, and bodies do not produce it. Therefore, we must supportive tissue. Vitamin C strengthens the get it from what we eat. The problem is this: immune system and aids in healing wounds.

even if we eat a food that we know contains The process of cooking may cause

vitamin C, our preparation to eat it (boiling vitamin C to be lost in foods, so that when 59

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

we eat them, we are not getting this much-

•

Spoon

needed nutrient.

•

Vegetable peeler

Is it healthier to eat a carrot raw or boiled

•

Possible adult supervision needed

regarding vitamin C? In this project, we will boil carrots in water and test the water for vitamin C content before and after the carrots Procedure

have been boiled in it. If no vitamin C is present in the water before boiling, but is When working around a hot stove, use present afterwards, then the cooking process caution. Also, do not put iodine in your has removed vitamin C from the carrots, mouth or bring it in contact with anything thereby making them less nutritious to eat.

edible, because iodine is poisonous.

Pour one cup of distilled water in a Hypothesis

cooking pot. Add 1⁄2 teaspoon of cornstarch.

Heat on a stove burner. Stir until dissolved, and then set aside to cool.

Hypothesize that when carrots are boiled in water, vitamin C will be lost in the carrots.

Pour one teaspoon of this solution into This will be evidenced by an increase in the one cup of distilled water. Add four drops of vitamin C content of the water in which the iodine and stir. The solution will turn dark carrots were boiled.

blue. This is our vitamin C test solution.

When vitamin C is added to this solution, the dark blue coloring will vanish.

Materials’ List

Prove this solution will work in detecting vitamin C by dropping a 250 milligram tablet

•

One carrot

of vitamin C into the test solution. As the tablet dissolves, the water will instantly

•

Two large test tubes

become clear.

•

Teaspoon measure

Now that you have proven the test

•

Distilled water

solution will detect the presence of vitamin

•

Corn starch

C, make another batch of the test solution by

•

Vitamin C tablet (250 milligram)

pouring one teaspoon of the cornstarch solution into one cup of distilled water and

•

Measuring cup

adding four drops of iodine.

•

Funnel

Place two large test tubes in holders side-

•

Cooking pot

by-side. Pour distilled water into one test

•

Use of a stove burner

tube until it is 3⁄4 full. A funnel is helpful.

•

Iodine

Using an eye dropper, add drops of the vitamin C test solution until you begin to see

•

Eyedropper

the water turning slightly blue. It may take 50

Project 15: C, a Fantastic Vitamin 60

Project 15: C, a Fantastic Vitamin Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

Conclusion

or 60 drops before a color change can be Come to a conclusion as to whether or not detected. Write down the number of drops your hypothesis was correct.

added when you first see the blue color.

Cut a carrot into small pieces or use a peeler to slice it into long, thin slivers. Place the pieces in a cooking pot with one cup of distilled water. Bring to a boil for several Something More

minutes, and then remove the pot from the heat and let it cool.

1. Can any more vitamin C be extracted Position the funnel in the mouth of the from the carrot pieces? Place the

second test tube and pour in the water from carrot pieces in a fresh cup of distilled the carrot pot until the test tube is 3⁄4 full.

water, reheat, and then retest for the With an eyedropper, add drops of the presence of vitamin C in the water. If vitamin C test solution to the carrot water. If more vitamin C came out, then some

vitamin C is present in the water, the water vitamin C was still in the carrot, even will not show any signs of turning blue when though some was lost initially to

the same number of drops are added that cooking.

were added to the water before carrots were 2. Does steaming vegetables retain more cooked in it. Can you fill the rest of the test vitamin C in the vegetable than

tube and still not see any shades of blue? If boiling them? If so, people who like so, a significant amount of vitamin C is their vegetables cooked, but who are present. The carrot lost some of its nutritional concerned about maintaining a high

value to the water.

level of vitamin C, could steam their vegetables rather than boil them.

3. Can you make a tasty drink from the boiled carrot water? If so, it would be nutritious, because the boiled water contains vitamin C from the carrots.

61

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Project 16

Zenith Is Not a Radio

Comparing the Sun’s daily zenith to the time between sunrise and sunset Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

The Sun illuminates half of the Earth all the

•

Earth & Space

time. But the length of daylight is not half of a day (12 hours) every day. In fact, the length

•

Math & Computers

of daylight changes daily and varies at different locations on the Earth.

Purpose or Problem

From about December 22nd to June 21st, the length of daylight increases daily in the Northern Hemisphere, and it decreases from The purpose is to determine if the Sun’s June 21st to December 22nd. This is because highest altitude in the sky during the day is at the Earth does not spin on its axis in the the time exactly halfway between sunrise and same plane as it orbits the Sun. The Earth is sunset.

tilted toward the orbiting plane at a 231⁄2

degree angle.

63

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

This tilt not only accounts for why the

•

Sunny day

length of daylight varies, it also gives us a

•

Time of sunrise and sunset for that day changing of seasons from spring, summer, (available from a daily newspaper, the fall, and winter.

Farmers’ Almanac, your local radio The Sun rises in the east and sets in the station, or a National Oceanic and

west, but the path it travels across the sky Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

changes as the seasons change. The altitude weather radio)

(its height above the horizon) of the Sun

•

Possible adult supervision needed

reaches a higher angle during the day in the summer than in the winter.

Does the Sun reach its highest point in Procedure

the sky (its zenith) during the day at the time that is halfway between sunrise and sunset First, be sure you never look directly at the for that day?

sun! Next, find the time of sunrise and sunset Knowing the position of the Sun at all for the day you do this project. These times times during the day throughout the year at a can often be found in a local daily particular location is important to architects newspaper, from an almanac, from the news who design buildings. They need to know on a local radio station, or from a NOAA how much sunlight will enter through weather radio.

windows because this will affect their designs Then, calculate the total number of for lighting, heating, and air conditioning.

minutes between sunrise and sunset. Divide that number by two. Convert the answer to hours and minutes. Add that to the time of Hypothesis

sunrise to arrive at a time that is midpoint between sunrise and sunset.

Hypothesize that the Sun reaches its zenith during the day at the time that is equally between sunrise and sunset.

Materials’ List

•

1ϫ1 square piece of plywood

Now, mount a protractor on a small piece

•

Large protractor

of plywood, so it stands perpendicular to the board. Modeling clay can be used to secure

•

Pencil

the protractor.

•

Carpenter’s level

•

Modeling clay

Project 16: Zenith Is Not a Radio 64

Project 16: Zenith Is Not a Radio Make these measurements at ten-minute intervals. Write down the angle of the Sun’s height.

Continue making measurements until one hour after the Sun’s angle begins to decrease.

Did the Sun’s peak height occur at about the time you calculated the midpoint between Next, set the protractor device outside in sunrise and sunset?

an area that receives unobstructed sunlight all day. Lay a carpenter’s level lengthwise, and then widthwise, to level the board. Pile a Results

little sand or small stones under the board to level it.

Write down the results of your experiment.

The reference point of zero on the

Document all observations and data

protractor will be held constant (the plywood collected.

and protractor will be kept level horizontally with the ground). The movement of the Earth is the variable in this project.

Conclusion

About two hours before midday, begin measuring the angle of the Sun’s altitude by Come to a conclusion as to whether or not placing the point of a pencil by the base at your hypothesis was correct.

the middle of the protractor, and raising the pencil up or down until no shadow of the pencil is cast. Remember, do not look

directly at the sun during this project. Check the angle of the pencil by reading the increments on the protractor.

North Pole

Plane of

Earth’s orbit

around the

sun

Equator

South Pole

65

Something More

1. Is the Sun always at zenith at

12 o’clock noon?

2. Determine

the

azimuth (the angle

between sunrise in the east and sunset in the west) of the Sun. Thumbtack a piece of white paper onto a piece of plywood, and slightly hammer a nail in the center through the paper and into the plywood, just deep enough

for the nail to hold. At sunrise, draw a line tracing the shadow cast by the nail. Just before sunset, when the

shadow cast by the nail is about to disappear, draw a line tracing the

shadow. Measure the angle. Repeat

this once a week for a month. Does

the angle change? Is the angle

increasing or decreasing in size?

Which season are you headed toward?

Does the peak height of the Sun in its path across the sky change from week to week?

Project 16: Zenith Is Not a Radio 66

Project 17

Bold Mold

Environment affects the rate at which food spoils Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Have you ever been hungry for a sandwich,

•

Biochemistry

only to discover that the last two slices of bread in the house have green mold on them?

•

Environmental

Yuck! Finding mold on your bread in the

•

Microbiology

bread box, mold on your cheese in the refrigerator, or mold on your peaches in the fruit basket can be unpleasant and irritating.

Purpose or Problem

Mold, and another member of the fungi kingdom, mildew, can even attack books. You The purpose is to identify several

may have picked up a book that has been environmental factors in the home that affect stored in a damp basement and found it the rate at which mold grows on food, spoiling covered with a powder-like substance.

it. By controlling how food is stored, we can extend its edible life.

67

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Molds grow from spores that can travel through the air. Unlike green plants, which Hypothesis

can make their own food by using chlorophyll and energy from sunlight, mold must get its Form a hypothesis as to which factors (light, nutrients from the food it grows on. Mold temperature, humidity) or combination of breaks down the food it is growing on, factors play a part in affecting the rate of causing the food to rot. While finding mold mold growth.

on your sandwich may be unpleasant, rotting is a natural and necessary process of nature.

To keep the foods we buy edible for as Materials’ List

long as possible, there are certain things we can do at home to preserve freshness. Will

•

Six leaves of lettuce

keeping foods from being overly moist or at a

•

Six slices of homemade or bakery fresh cool temperature prolong their viability?

bread (but not bread from the

In many instances, food producers add supermarket)

chemicals to their products to preserve

•

Six small pieces of meat

freshness. Food additives called mold inhibitors destroy microorganisms. The U.S.

•

Six small pieces of a block of cheese (for government allows low levels of certain food example, sharp cheese or Monterey Jack) additives to be placed in our foods. These

•

Six peaches

chemicals include monosodium glutamate,

•

Spray bottle filled with water

ethyl formate, sodium benzoate, sodium and

•

Box of sealable plastic food storage or calcium propionate, sodium nitrite and sandwich bags

nitrate, sorbic acid, and sulfur dioxide.

•

Use of a refrigerator

Natural preservatives include salt and sugar, which bind with the water in foods,

•

Masking tape

preventing the water from being available for

•

Felt-tipped marker

microorganisms to feed on. Another method is subjecting food to smoke. You may have read that in early times, meats and fish were Procedure

smoked to preserve them. Today, foods are usually smoked to give them a distinct flavor, Gather the foods in the materials’ list. Each not because it helps preserve them.

food will be placed in a different environment.

Determine what factors you can control at Six pieces of each type of food are needed to home that help prevent mold growth on test the environmental conditions.

common foods. Light, temperature, and Place each of the foods in a separate humidity are factors we will test.

sealable plastic food-storage bag: lettuce, bread, cheese, meat, and peaches. Before sealing the bags, spray a light water mist into Project 17: Bold Mold

68

Project 17: Bold Mold

•

Kept in the dark at a lower temperature with only the moisture present in the food

•

Kept in the dark at a lower temperature with additional moisture present

Once a day, inspect each food. Write down your observations.

After several weeks, thoroughly inspect all the foods one final time. Do not open any of the sealed bags. When the project is SANDWICH BAGS

completed, discard the bags in the trash without ever opening them. Breathing mold one of the two bags for each food, to give spores may irritate some people.

extra moisture. Stick a piece of masking tape Did any of the foods develop mold? If so, on each bag that moisture has been added to, which one(s) did the most mold grow on?

and write “moisture added” on the tape with Which environment was the best at

a felt-tipped marker.

preventing mold? Which encouraged mold Put two bags of each food in a refrigerator.

growth the most?

Place two bags of each in a well-lit, out-of-If no mold grew on any of the foods, it the-way location where the temperature could be because no spores were present on constantly stays between 68 and 72 degrees the foods, or that the foods had been Fahrenheit. Place two bags of each in a chemically treated with mold inhibitors.

completely dark location (a dresser drawer, Generally, anything homemade would not closet, or another dark location) that stays at contain food additives. Try baking a cake room temperature.

from scratch and using it as the test food.

The environments, then, are

If you were unsuccessful at finding mold on any of the foods, try setting foods out in

•

Exposed to light with only the moisture the open for several days before sealing them present in the food

in the bags and placing them in their test environments. You may even want to wait

•

Exposed to light with additional moisture until mold begins to form before placing present

them in the test environments, and then

•

Kept in the dark with only the moisture monitor the growth rate of the molds to see present in the food

the effect of each environment. If left out in

•

Kept in the dark with additional moisture the open, spray the samples you are giving present

extra moisture once or twice a day because the moisture will evaporate.

69

Results

Something More

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

1. What color is the mold on different collected.

foods (bread, cheese, peaches, and so forth)? Do different molds have

different textures?

Conclusion

2. Will direct sunlight affect the growth of mold? If so, what is it about

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not sunlight that stunts (or promotes) the your hypothesis was correct.

growth (visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared, and so forth)?

Project 17: Bold Mold

70

Project 18

M&M’s Ring Around the World

Determining the validity of sample size

•

How many blue candies are in a bag of

Suggested Entry

M&M’s?

Category

•

What percentage of each color is in a

bag?

•

Math & Computers

•

Are the same number of each colored

candy found in each bag, or are their quantities random?

Overview

•

Can you predict how many of each color will be in a bag before it is opened? (You A lot of investigating can be done with can if the colors are not random.)

several bags of M&M’s candies! And when

•

Some people believe there are always

you finish your investigations, you can eat more brown candies than any other color.

them! (But, do not eat them if you are Is this true?

allergic to chocolate or can’t tolerate sugar!)

•

Does each bag contain exactly the same Just think of all the questions you can number of candies?

pose:

71

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

•

Does each candy weigh the same, or are COLOR

BAG #1

BAG #2

BAG #3

some bigger than others?

Quantity

%

Quantity

%

Quantity

%

Blue

Maybe you should eat a few candies

Brown

before exploring the answers to these Yellow

questions, just to be sure you have plenty of Orange

energy!

Green

Red

TOTAL

Hypothesis

Open a bag of M&M’s candies. Count the Hypothesize that four bags constitute a large-number of each colored candy, and write the enough sample size to know whether or not number down on the table under the column you can predict how many of each color labeled BAG #1.

candy will be in a bag before it is opened.

In the same way, open a second bag, count and write down the number of each Materials’ List

color under the BAG #2 heading. Finally, do the same with the third bag. Add each column and write down the total number of

•

Four bags of M&M’s candies

candies in each bag.

•

Gram weight scale

Looking at your table of data, you can

•

Coat hanger

now answer all the questions we posed.

•

Three paper clips

•

Piece of string

• Percent— Percentage is a measure of a

•

Use of a door jam

part of something to the whole thing. It is expressed in hundredths. Percent comes from the Latin words per meaning by, Procedure

and centum meaning one hundred. The symbol for percent is %. To find the percent, divide the part by the whole, and Purchase four bags of M&M’s candies (or then multiply by 100.

similar bags of multicolored candies). With a pencil and paper, draw a table with column Part

——–— ϫ 100 = Percent

headings for BAG #1, BAG #2, and BAG #3.

Whole

The number of each colored candy will be recorded under each bag. If you know how to use a spreadsheet program on a computer, set up the table on the spreadsheet.

Project 18: M&M’s Ring Around the World 72

Project 18: M&M’s Ring Around the World For example, suppose 13 green

•

Weight Comparison—On the label of the

candies are in a bag, and the total number candy bag is the weight of its contents. In of candies in that bag is 58.

the case of an M&M’s bag, 47.9 grams.

13

But, did you find each bag had a different

—— = .224 ϫ 100 = 22.4%

number of candies? What can this mean?

58

Either the weight shown on the label is Find the percentage of each colored only an approximate or minimum weight, candy to the total number of candies in or each candy does not weigh exactly the the bag. Do this for each of the three same!

sample bags, and write this figure on your Set several candies next to each other.

table.

Do they all look the same size or are

•

Sample Size—Scientists often use the

some bigger than others?

concept of sample size to learn what a If you have access to a very accurate large group might be like based on data gram weight scale at school, weigh two gathered from a small group. The size of bags and compare their weight.

the sample group should be big enough to give a true picture of the larger group.

You can also build a simple balance beam Is the data you gathered by only

to compare the weight of two bags. Use a evaluating three bags accurate enough so coat hanger suspended from a door jam with you can make statements that are true of a candy bag hanging from each end to see if every bag of M&M’s candy?

they are in balance (the hanger will tilt if one bag is heavier than the other).

If you found that the number of each colored candy is very different in each of the three bags, would you then predict that when you open a fourth bag, the Molding over

number of colored candies will also be String

a door jam

random in that bag?

Paper clips

What was the total number of candies bent open to

Coat hanger

form an “S”

in each bag? Was it always the same? Is shaped-hook

there a range? For example, if one bag had 55, one 58, and one 57, then the range of candies is from 55 to 58. By M&Ms

M&Ms

your examination of three bags of candy, would you predict that every bag you Bags of candy

open in the future will not contain exactly the same number of candies?

73

Results

Something More

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document the data collected.

Determine unit cost. If a bag of candy costs 60 cents and it contains 55 candies, how much does each individual candy Conclusion

cost? This is called unit cost. Divide the total cost (60 cents) by the total number of candies (55):

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

.60

—— = 0.0109 or 1.09 cents each 55

How much does each candy cost in a bag that contains 58 candies? Did you get more candies for your money?

Project 18: M&M’s Ring Around the World 74

Project 19

Choices

Behavior: The position of an item

will determine the selection by handedness (left hand/right hand) over color

Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

“Pink is for girls and blue is for boys” is the

•

Behavioral & Social

age-old saying. If two cupcakes are offered to a male, both being identical except that one has pink stripes across the icing and one has Purpose or Problem

blue, will he chose the blue one or will he chose the one that is closest to the hand he favors?

The purpose is to determine which is the stronger trait for selecting objects: the In this behavioral experiment, we try to location of the object closest to the hand determine which is the stronger trait among favored (right-handed or left-handed) or the males, handedness or color. Determine if association of color, specifically, gender-most males will choose a cupcake that is associated colors (pink and blue).

easier to take because of handedness (right 75

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

handed/left handed) or more inconvenient to take, but is colored blue rather than pink.

Materials’ List

If a male is told that two cupcakes are identical except for the color of the icing

•

Two dozen vanilla cupcakes with white

stripes, do you think the color will influence icing

the decision as to which one he will choose?

•

Food coloring

Because most of us have heard the saying

•

Two small dishes (cereal bowls) to mix

“Pink is for girls and blue is for boys,” do food coloring

you think a boy would unconsciously select a blue-striped cupcake over a pink one? Do

•

Spoon

you think he would choose a blue one out of

•

Eyedropper

fear that someone watching might ridicule

•

Between 10 and 20 male friends

him for taking a pink one because he thinks

•

Small serving tray

pink is for girls?

•

Paper and pencil

Or, do you think convenience has a

stronger influence in his selection? When two

•

Camcorder or camera and video tape

cupcakes are placed in front of a person, a recorder (optional)

right-handed person may tend to take the

•

Possible adult supervision needed

cupcake on the right, because it is closer and easier to take, while a left-handed person may go for the one on the left.

Procedure

Bake or purchase a batch of vanilla cupcakes Hypothesis

with white icing. The size and shape must be held constant.

Hypothesize that more males will select a Using food coloring, pour a small dish of blue-striped cupcake over a pink-striped blue (a standard food color) and mix a dish cupcake, even though the pink-striped of pink (stirring several colors together).

cupcake will be closer to the hand he favors With an eyedropper, draw blue parallel (right handed/left handed).

lines on half the cupcakes. Draw pink parallel lines on the rest of the cupcakes. You may want to mix a batch of icing and mold it into strips, coloring some blue and some pink.

Then, lay the strips in parallel across the top of the cupcakes.

The variable in this experiment is the color of the stripes on the cupcakes. The blue-colored cupcakes will constantly be Project 19: Choices

76

Project 19: Choices

positioned on a serving tray, so they are on Obviously, question two, which is buried the opposite side of the person’s handedness.

within the group of questions, is the only one The object of the stripes is to give enough we care about, but it is camouflaged with color to the top of each cupcake to establish a other questions.

definite color difference between them. We Once you know if a person is right- or do not want to make all the icing solid blue left-handed, place a blue cupcake on a tray or solid pink, because people tend to that will be on the opposite side of her associate color with taste. It is important that handedness and position a pink cupcake on the test subjects do not make a choice of the other side. For example, if a person is cupcakes based on how they think a cupcake right-handed, place a pink cupcake on the will taste. Simply being told that all the side of the serving tray that will be nearest cupcakes are identical except for the color her right hand when the tray is presented to stripes on the icing may not be enough to her and place the blue cupcake on the left unconsciously convince them.

side. She will have to extend her arm further Next, gather a dozen or more male test to reach the blue cupcake than the pink one.

subjects. We must know if each subject is left-handed or right-handed, so we will ask them. But, we do not want to tip them off that this experiment has something to do with their handedness. So, disguise the question by asking five or six nonrelated questions, surrounding the handedness questions by other questions. When polling each person, write down all their answers, so they do not suspect you are only interested in the data about their handedness. You may choose to use a computer to type the questions and print copies for the subjects to fill in themselves.

Suggested questions:

This experiment lends itself well to video tape recording for later evaluation and to 1. What is your favorite music group?

enhance a presentation in a science fair.

2. Are you right- or left-handed?

Did more boys pick blue cupcakes or did 3. Is your bedroom on a first or second they pick the handier pink cupcakes?

floor?

Be sure none of your test subjects has 4. Name a TV show you try to never miss.

an allergy or food-related problem with 5. What time do you usually go to bed at cupcakes before they eat one.

night?

77

Results

Something More

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

1. Repeat the experiment testing girls collected.

instead of boys. Place the pink

cupcakes further out of reach and the blue ones closest to their handedness.

Conclusion

2. Are there shape preferences by

gender? Use cookies and cookie-cutter Come to a conclusion as to whether or not molds to make stars, triangles, hearts, your hypothesis was correct.

and circles. Do males tend to select different kinds of shapes than females do?

Project 19: Choices

78

Project 20

Plants Exhale

A plant produces more oxygen

when light intensity is increased

Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

Chlorophyll (a chemical found in the green

•

Botany

leaves of plants) and light collected by the leaves of plants combine with water and carbon dioxide to start a process that causes Purpose or Problem

the leaves to release oxygen.

How critical is light to this process? If The purpose is to determine if the intensity of less light reduces the amount of oxygen light on a plant’s leaves affects the plant’s produced, you might conclude that plants oxygen output.

living underneath a thick canopy layer in a forest do not produce as much oxygen as those in direct sunlight.

79

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vertical. It can tilt a little if it needs to rest Hypothesis

against the side of the tank for support.

Similarly, place a water-filled test tube Hypothesize that elodea, a common over elodea foliage in the second aquarium.

aquarium plant, will produce more oxygen The elodea, aquariums, and size of the test when subjected to a higher intensity of light.

tubes are constant. The variable in this project is the amount of light each plant receives.

Materials’ List

Place each aquarium in a dark area of your house, for example, a closet or an

•

Two small aquarium tanks

unused room with the drapes closed.

•

Two test tubes

Find two table lamps, and remove the

•

Two elodea aquarium plants (available at lamp shades. Position one lamp next to each pet shops)

aquarium. In one lamp, place a 15-watt light bulb; use a 100-watt bulb in the second lamp.

•

Two table lamps

•

One 15-watt light bulb

•

One 100-watt light bulb

•

Two dark areas (for example, closets)

•

Possible adult supervision needed

Procedure

15 Watt bulb

Fill two small aquariums (or very large, tall, clear glass jars) with water. Place an elodea plant in each one. Elodea is a common underwater plant that many people who have pet fish use in their aquariums.

Fill a small test tube with water. Place your finger tightly over the top to prevent the 100 Watt bulb

water from escaping and air from entering.

Turn the test tube upside down and lower it Be sure the electric cord is not plugged into the water, capturing as much foliage into the wall when you are changing light from the elodea plant inside the tube as bulbs. Also, make certain the lamps are possible. All the plant’s leaves do not have to not touching any curtains, drapes, or any fit inside the tube. Also, it is not necessary paper or cloth material that could pose a for the test tube to remain completely fire hazard. Keep the lamps alongside the Project 20: Plants Exhale

80

Project 20: Plants Exhale

aquariums. Do not attempt to put them on the top, where they could come in contact with the water and create an electrical Something More

hazard.

Make daily observations to see if any 1. Is there an intensity of light beyond oxygen is accumulating in the test tubes.

which there is no advantage

increasing it?

After observing for many days, is the quantity of oxygen different in the test tubes?

2. In school science labs, a burning Which one has accumulated the most?

splint is often used to detect the

presence of oxygen in a small test

tube. A “pop” or tiny explosion occurs Results

if oxygen is present. Use the burning splint technique to confirm that the gas collected from the elodea is

Write down the results of your experiment.

oxygen. Do this under the

Document all observations and data

supervision of a school science

collected.

instructor with proper safety

precautions in place.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

81

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Project 21

Melting Mountains

Alluvial runoff from melting mountain ice Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Alluvial deposits are the materials (soil, rock,

•

Environmental Science

debris, and so forth) that have accumulated from being transported by moving water.

•

Physics

Alluvial formations are created at the deltas of rivers, as material is deposited by the currents of water.

Purpose or Problem

Every spring, snow and ice on mountains begin to melt. As gravity and the steepness of Mountain material is lost to erosion every mountain sides accelerate the flow of water, spring as snow and ice on mountain peaks materials from the mountain are carried along melt. We will attempt to determine if the rate with the water. If spring temperatures are at which the ice melts (due to temperature) warmer than normal, will this cause more has an effect on the amount of material lost material to be carried off the mountain than if to erosion.

83

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temperatures were more moderate? If so, Find two small Styrofoam trays.

mountain erosion caused by melting snow Styrofoam trays are often found in grocery and ice would be in direct relationship to stores with ground beef, veal patties, and temperature.

other meats packed in them. With scissors, cut the lip off one end of each tray.

Weigh one of the Styrofoam trays on a Hypothesis

gram weight scale, and then fill a kitchen measuring cup with very fine sand. Pour the Hypothesize that more alluvial material will sand onto the Styrofoam tray, positioning it at be deposited by melting ice when the the center of the tray. Weigh the tray with temperature increases.

sand. Subtract the weight of the tray (the tare weight) to find the weight of the sand.

The second tray must be filled with Materials’ List

exactly the same quantity of sand as the first tray. Weigh the second Styrofoam tray. Pour

•

Two plastic gallon milk jugs

a measuring cup of fine sand onto the center

•

Two Styrofoam trays

of the tray, and then place it on a scale.

Subtract the weight of the tray. Add or take

•

Two 6-inch-long pieces of 2ϫ4 lumber

away sand from the tray until the second

•

Water

sand pile weighs the same as on the first tray.

•

Two cups of very fine sand

Manipulate the sand on both trays until

•

Scissors

both piles of sand are about equal in size and

•

Use of a freezer

shape. Use a ruler to measure the height of each pile.

•

Gram weight scale

Carefully, using scissors, cut off the

•

Kitchen measuring cup

bottom part of two plastic gallon milk or

•

Heat lamp

water jugs. Cut about 11⁄2 inches up from the

•

Ruler

bottom, leaving small plastic bowl-like containers. Fill each jug bottom with water to a depth of 1 inch. Place in a freezer.

Procedure

When completely frozen, remove the two 1-inch slab ice cubes from the plastic jug Two model mountains with melting ice will bowls.

be set up, with one melting at a much more Use a piece of 2ϫ4 wood (or several rapid rate. Held constant in the experiment books stacked on top of each other) to tilt the will be the quantity of sand, ice, and the tray with sand. Position the cut-away end of slope of the runoff. The variable will be the the tray at the bottom of the slope, and rest it temperature.

in one of the plastic jug bowls. This will Project 21: Melting Mountains

84

Project 21: Melting Mountains

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

capture any runoff water and sand that is carried down. Carefully set an ice slab on top of each sand pile. This will create a model of melting ice on top of a mountain.

Something More

Place the whole device in a cool location somewhere in your home.

1. Repeat the previous experiment, but Make a second device with the other tray, this time, use coarse particles of sand.

sand, ice, 2ϫ4, and bowl. Set this one in a Hypothesize that not as much material place where a heat lamp can be safely will be deposited because of the

positioned over the top of the ice. You can bigger size of the particles.

use an infrared bulb, available at pharmacies 2. How

does

pitch (the slope of the

or possibly from your school science teacher, runoff) affect erosion?

as a heat lamp.

When the ice on both trays melts

completely, remove the two plastic jug bowls.

Let the water collected in them evaporate.

Then, using a gram weight scale, weigh the remaining particles of sand in each bowl.

Was more sand deposited from the heat lamp mountain?

85

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Project 22

Sounds Fishy

Determining if goldfish have

water temperature preferences

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Pet goldfish can withstand a rather wide

•

Behavioral & Social

range of temperatures. Are they more comfortable in water that is above or below

•

Zoology

room temperature? Finding out which temperature they prefer, and then giving them that temperature, may make for healthier, Purpose or Problem

longer-living pets.

Find the relative temperature (warmer or cooler) that pet goldfish prefer.

87

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

temperature. If one reads differently, mark it Hypothesis

with a marker and note the difference in temperature. You will need to account for this Hypothesize that water temperatures above difference when you make temperature room temperature (within reason) are more readings in the water.

desirable to goldfish than water temperatures Fill the aquarium with water. Let the below room temperature, as evidenced by water stand for several hours until it reaches their spending more time in the area of an room temperature.

aquarium they prefer. (Or, you may choose to Place a fish-tank heater in one side of the hypothesize the opposite.)

aquarium. Place several ice cubes in the other side. Position two thermometers in the tank, one in each side.

Materials’ List

Introduce the goldfish into the water and observe them for several hours. Do the fish

•

Piece of Plexiglas

spend more time in one section than the

•

Nontoxic bonding glue for plastic and

other? What is the temperature difference glass

between the two sides?

•

Aquarium

•

Several goldfish

•

Two thermometers

•

Fish tank heater

•

Several ice cubes

Procedure

Position a board or a piece of Plexiglas in an Results

aquarium tank. It should extend from the top to the bottom of the aquarium, and when Write down the results of your experiment.

placed in the center of the tank, a 1-inch Document all observations and data

gap should be around one of the sides to collected.

allow the fish to freely swim from one side of the tank to the other. Secure with glue and let dry.

Conclusion

Get two thermometers. Lay them side-by-side on a table and allow them to sit for about Come to a conclusion as to whether or not 15 minutes to stabilize at room temperature.

your hypothesis was correct.

Project 22: Sounds Fishy

Both thermometers should read the same 88

Project 22: Sounds Fishy

Something More

1. Can you entice the fish to go into the side of the aquarium that has a less-desirable water temperature by always feeding them on that side?

2. Can goldfish be trained? Make a tapping sound on the side of the

aquarium every time you feed them.

After several weeks, will they come to the feeding area when they hear the tapping, even if no food is present?

3. Do goldfish prefer light or dark, or do they have no preference for either?

Make one partition of the aquarium

well lit and the other darker by

covering the sides with dark

construction paper.

4. Are there other factors that might be at play, such as light? Will the result be the same if you turn the tank 180

degrees?

89

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Project 23

Parallelogram Prevention

Simple bracing can greatly increase a structure’s capability to maintain its shape under stress Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

The science discipline of engineering has

•

Engineering

many branches: chemical, electrical, aeronautical, biochemical, nuclear, and

•

Physics

mechanical.

Mechanical engineering requires Purpose or Problem

knowledge of the behavior of materials and their physical properties to design buildings, machines, aircraft, bridges, skyscrapers, The purpose is to find the best placement of overpasses, dams, and other structures.

braces to strengthen a square wooden frame.

Mathematics, physics, experimentation, and testing are important aspects of mechanical engineering.

91

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Physical structures that undergo stress are

•

Four large screw hooks

often given extra support by using braces at

•

Lumber: five 8-foot-long pieces of 1⁄2-inch key positions on the structure. Amazingly, pine of any width (1 to 4 inches)

braces sometimes don’t need to be very

•

Lumber: several 3-foot-long shims

strong to be effective. Their placement in the structure is more critical than their strength.

•

Lumber: 2-foot piece of 2ϫ4

Yet, they can give tremendous strength to the

•

Several dozen nails about 11⁄2 inches long structure they are bracing.

•

Several buckets of sand

•

Towel

Structure deforms

•

Scale

Force

applied

•

Wood saw

•

Wood drill

•

Hammer

Base fixed

•

Use of a table

•

Adult supervision, if using power tools This project requires wood to be cut to specific lengths and holes to be drilled in the wood. If power tools are to be used, make Procedure

sure you have adult supervision. Observe all safety precautions using power tools.

Make four 2-foot-square wooden frames using 1⁄2-inch pine boards. The boards can be of any width, from 1 inch to 3 or 4 inches.

Hypothesis

Use only one nail at each corner.

Hypothesize which of three different bracing forms can best help to keep a square wooden structure true to form when an unbalanced force is applied.

Materials’ List

Basic structure

Exterior “X” braces

•

One 5-foot piece of rope

•

Pulley

•

Two 2-inch-long bolts with nuts

•

Several plastic gallon milk/water jugs Project 23: Parallelogram Prevention Horizontal brace

Interior corner braces

92

Project 23: Parallelogram Prevention Stand the frames vertically, as shown.

Set the jig on a table. Place a towel or Drill two holes in the bottom of each frame.

something soft underneath the jig to be sure The holes must be placed 12 inches apart.

the heads of the bolts do not scratch the Put one screw hook into the end of each surface of the table.

frame at the top of one side, as shown above.

Tie a piece of rope onto the hook. Drape Take one of the frames and add exterior X

it over the pulley and let it hang down. Tie braces from corner-to-corner on both sides.

the other end onto several empty plastic These braces need not be made out of strong gallon milk or water jugs, so the jugs hang wood. Thin wood, such as shims or wood suspended and do not touch the floor.

used for making latticework, will suffice.

Take another frame and cut a horizontal brace out of the pine wood. Use one nail Pulley

Nuts on

through each side to mount it horizontally bolts

across the interior center.

Using the pine wood, cut four 4-inch pieces and nail them into the inside corners Fill with

as shown.

sand

This completes the four structures to be tested. Next, construct a jig, so each structure can be tested.

Cut a 3-foot-square piece of 1⁄2 or thicker plywood. At one edge, securely mount a Begin adding sand to the jugs until the 2-foot vertical piece of 2ϫ4 wood. You may square wooden structure begins to show signs need to strengthen it by using a large metal of skewing. If the test jig begins to tip, place elbow angle brace behind it. Mount a pulley some heavy weights on the plywood base or at the top of the board.

have a friend sit on it! Weigh the jugs of Near the middle of the plywood, drill two sand.

holes spaced 12 inches apart. The holes must Repeat the procedure for each of the three be in line behind the 2ϫ4 piece, as shown.

structures that have braces added. Record the Push a 2- or 3-inch bolt up through each weights.

hole. This completes our test jig.

Were all the brace structures able to Position the basic wooden structure on sustain more lateral force? Which brace the test jig, so the bolts come up through the method worked best? Which was the least holes in the structure. The hook should be on beneficial?

the side facing the pulley. Screw the nuts down onto the bolts and tighten. The structure is now secured to the jig.

93

Results

Something More

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

Compare the strength of a simple wooden collected.

square structure where the top and bottom lengths of wood are equal, and the two shorter side pieces are equal, to a Conclusion

structure where all sides are equal, with each corner overlapping the next, as shown in this illustration.

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

Project 23: Parallelogram Prevention 94

Project 24

A Taste of Plant Acid

Determining if a vegetable has a

more acrid taste if it has a higher pH

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Some vegetables have a strong, sharp, “acrid”

•

Botany

taste, sometimes even stinging your tongue and nose. A good example is an onion. Yet,

•

Chemistry

even among the onion family, there are differences in the strongness of their taste.

Does the pH (the measure of alkalinity or Purpose or Problem

acidity) differ in different types of onions (American onion, Spanish onion, and so The purpose is to determine if pH could be a forth)? If one type of onion has stronger taste factor in giving an onion an acrid taste.

than another, do you think the pH of the stronger onion is more acidic?

95

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One characteristic of chemical substances hydrogen ions,” because chemists can use is the amount of acid or base they contain.

electricity to do the measurement.

Foods that contain weak acids taste sour, for The pH scale goes from 0 to 14, 0 as the example, lemon or lime juice, and pickles.

strongest acid, 7 s neutral (in the middle), Strong acids may be hazardous, as they can and 14 as the strongest base. Pure water has a damage your skin and other parts of your pH of 7. If you have a swimming pool, you body. The opposite of an acid is a base, also may have used a pH water-test kit, where a called an alkali. Bases have a slippery feel to sample of water is collected, and a few drops the touch. They taste bitter. Examples of of a special chemical are added and mixed substances that are bases include ammonia with the water. The resulting color of the and other cleaning products, milk of water is matched against a color comparator magnesia, baking soda, and soap. Products chart to find the exact pH.

that unclog household drains contain strong One way to measure pH is by using

bases, and they can be hazardous to touch.

litmus paper. Litmus paper comes in different In the same way as a ruler is used to colors to measure different ranges of pH. Red measure the length of an object, and a litmus paper turns blue in a base solution.

thermometer is used to show how hot Blue litmus paper turns red in an acid something is, chemists have created a scale to solution. A color chart is used to compare the measure how much acid or base a substance color litmus paper turns to a pH number.

contains. This measurement tool is called the pH scale. Technically, the term “pH” means

“the potential of electricity for positive The pH Scale

AC I D S

N E U T R A L

BA S E S

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

Stomach

Baking

Milk of

Acid

Vinegar

Tomato

Water

soda

Magnesia

Ammonia

Lemons

Apples

Bananas

Milk

Eggs

Soap

Lye

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

Project 24: A Taste of Plant Acid Stronger

Weaker

Weaker

Stronger

96

Project 24: A Taste of Plant Acid Hypothesis

Results

Hypothesize that among several types of Write down the results of your experiment.

onions, the ones with the stronger (more Document all observations and data

acrid) taste have lower pH values (will be collected.

more acidic) than the others.

Conclusion

Materials’ List

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not

•

As many different types of onions as you your hypothesis was correct.

can find

•

pH test kit with color comparator

Procedure

Something More

Gather as many different types of onions as Compare the pH of various other

you can. Squeeze juice from each type and vegetables. Is there an association with use a pH test kit to determine the pH of the sharp taste to pH? Does a red bell pepper juice. Taste a small amount of the juice of have a different pH than a green bell every onion, and then compare the strongness pepper? Compare the pH of various citrus of each. Compare the tastes to the pH of each fruits to their taste.

onion. Do the onions with a stronger taste have a lower pH?

Note: If the pH is more acidic in stronger-tasting onions, this poses an interesting correlation. However, it does not prove that pH is the only factor involved in making the onions taste more acrid.

Additional research would have to be done.

97

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Project 25

Split and Dip

Testing a strategy for making money in the stock market

Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

What’s the secret to making money in the

•

Math & Computers

stock market? It’s simple: buy low, sell high.

That’s it! Everything else is just “noise.” Buy a stock when its price is low and sell it at a Purpose or Problem

later date when the price has appreciated. Of course, the hard part is picking a stock whose price will appreciate.

The purpose is to determine if a specific strategy for buying or selling stock in the Most successful investors buy stock in a stock market might be profitable over a company they have thoroughly researched period of time.

and they believe the company has great potential for increasing its earnings in the future. When a company has increasing 99

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

earnings, the price of its stock usually theory with a large sample size. Our strategy increases. Buying stock in a good company will be a short-term play. We will attempt to and holding onto it for many years is a great buy low and sell high within a few weeks or way to build a nice nest egg.

months to make a small profit.

But, some people try to get a much

Our strategy is to buy a stock if it takes a quicker return on their money. They attempt slight “dip” within the first three weeks of to buy and sell stocks in a very short period doing a stock split, and then selling the stock of time, perhaps over a period of several several weeks after that as the stock begins to weeks or months. Some even buy and sell climb.

within the same day; they are known as day What is a stock split? A stock split is traders.

when a company divides its total number of Short-term investing can be very risky, shares of stock to make more shares however, and, many times, an investor will available. For example, suppose a stock is lose money or miss out on really big gains selling for $100 a share and you own 20

because a stock was sold prematurely.

shares. If the company does a 2-for-1 split, Patience usually gives investors an edge.

you will get two shares of stock for every one Nevertheless, the fearless investor is lured share you have, but the price per share will to a quick profit by short-term trading, just as be cut in half. After the stock split, then, you a gambler is drawn to the chance for a big will own 40 shares of stock valued at $50 per win with the pull of a slot-machine handle.

share. Think of a 2-for-1 stock split as somebody giving you two five-dollar bills Stock market trading, however, is not and you giving them a ten-dollar bill. You quite the same gamble as pulling the handle end up with two bills, but the total dollar on a slot machine. Naturally, some luck is value of the money you have has not involved and some uncontrollable factors are changed. You got two $5s for a $10.

at play. But the odds are more in your favor in the stock market, where you can do your Companies may chose other ratios for homework researching a company and its splitting, for example, 3-for-1 or 3-for-2.

products, and developing strategies based on Why do companies split their stock?

the past performance of a stock.

Splitting makes the price of their stock Stock market gurus are everywhere,

cheaper, so it is more affordable. They hope selling newsletters and services, each one people will then buy more of it, which will making recommendations as to which stock cause the stock’s value to increase.

to buy, based on their “unique” strategies.

Why would a stock make a temporary dip How accurate are the predictions by these in price following a split? Once a stock split gurus? Their theories must be tested over is announced, traders often start buying time with a large sample of stocks.

shares, which drives the price up a few weeks Let’s propose a strategy of our own, and before the stock is scheduled to split. Once then, over a period of two months, test our the split takes place, traders begin to sell their shares to lock in profits from the presplit Project 25: Split and Dip

100

Project 25: Split and Dip

price run-up. Historically, stock splits were a real money). After several months, our wins nonevent. A split is nothing more than two and losses will be tallied. Our hypothesis is $5s for a $10. But, in recent years, a split has that we will make an overall profit, even been perceived as a positive move, because though there will occasionally be some losing stocks that announce splits have usually been stock plays.

very good stocks. So, the stock often goes up when a split is announced because people buy into what they think is a positive move.

Materials’ List

Once the stock splits, some traders sell their stock to capture a small profit from the stock

•

Computer with a modem and an Internet

price rising between the time of the connection

announcement and the actual split date. That

•

Computer printer

selling may cause the stock price to take a slight drop. This often happens within the

•

Financial daily newspaper

first three weeks following the split. After the

•

Two to three months of time

dip hits a bottom, the stock price may begin

•

Calculator or computer spreadsheet

to rise again. There is a tendency for the program (optional)

stock to regain lost ground and head up toward its previous high (which may take a year or two) if it is a good company, which is Procedure

why the stock went up so high in the first place.

Research to compile a list of stocks that have Buying a stock on the slight dip after a announced they are going to split. Companies split is an opportunity to buy low, and when that announce stock splits are listed in daily the stock begins to climb shortly after that, to financial newspapers ( The Wall Street Journal, sell high.

Investors Business Daily, and so forth) and announced on financial news programs on TV

and on financial channels (CNBC). Many Hypothesis

stock market sites on the Internet also list upcoming stock splits. Some sites include: Hypothesize that you will make a profit the majority of the time by buying stocks that

•

http://biz.yahoo.com/c/s.html

take a slight price dip within the first few

•

www.coveredcalls.com

days or weeks following the split, and then selling the stock within a month or two as the You need not wait for splits to take place.

price moves upward. We will only buy stocks You can find out when stocks have split in that take a dip within the first three weeks the past by looking at their stock charts following a split. We will sell the stock (which indicate when a stock split) or by within two months following the split. Stocks checking these Internet sites:

will be bought and sold on paper (not using 101

•

http://quote.yahoo.com

financial Internet site or a financial

•

www.briefing.com

newspaper and write down the price of your stock. You may want to do this every

•

www.cboe.com

morning or evening.

•

www.freerealtime.com

After a stock splits, watch for a drop in

•

www.stocktools.com

price. When you find a stock that is in a

•

www.theonlineinvestor.com

downward trend for several days, watch it until it appears to level off or head back up.

This project requires viewing a lot of At that time, do a paper trade, that is, pretend stock charts to observe the price behavior to buy 100 shares of the stock. Write down patterns following stock splits. The Internet the cost per share and how much money you has hundreds of free financial sites where spent. Timing the market is very difficult.

you can get stock charts. Some of the best You may think you are buying the stock at include:

the lowest part of the dip, only to later discover that the stock dips even more.

•

http://quote.yahoo.com

Nevertheless, hold on to your stock, even if you think you didn’t buy it at its lowest point.

•

www.bigcharts.com

Once you purchase a stock, continue to Stock charts are displayed by entering a write down its closing price each day. Watch company’s ticker symbol, the symbol used by it for one or two months. If the stock rises to the stock exchanges to represent each a point where you feel you would make a company. For example, Disney is DIS, Coca-nice profit if you sold it, sell your shares. To Cola is KO, Ford Motor Company is F. If you arrive at your profit, subtract your cost from do not know a company’s ticker symbol, you the money you made selling your shares.

can usually obtain it from the Internet site Determine the percent return on your money where you are getting your stock charts. The by dividing the profit by the cost, and then daily financial papers also list all companies multiplying the answer by 100 to show alphabetically, along with their ticker symbol.

percent. For example, suppose you bought 100 shares of Kmart stock at $12 per share, The Internet is a fast-changing medium, for a cost of $1,200. You sold the stock at and the sites we have just listed for research $131⁄2, or $1,350. The profit is $150. $150

and charting may or may not still offer these divided by $1,200 equals 0.125, times 100 to free services. If that happens, use an Internet show percent is 121⁄2 percent. That’s a very search engine to search for stock market good return over two months!

quotes or stock splits.

Our rule is to only buy stocks that show a Once you compile a list of stocks that are dip pattern within three weeks of a stock due to split (at least a dozen stocks split split. If a stock does not take a dip, do not every month), write down the name of each use it in the project.

company, the ticker symbols, and the date the Project 25: Split and Dip

stock is due to split. Once a day, check a 102

Project 25: Split and Dip

Another rule is to sell any stock you buy on dip that continues dropping more than 20

Conclusion

percent. We will take the loss, but we will preserve our money, so we don’t lose too Come to a conclusion as to whether or not much. Not all stocks do well after a stock your hypothesis was correct.

split, as evidenced by Disney (DIS) in 1999.

50

40

SPLIT

30

Something More

Stock price

dips within 2

20

weeks follow-

10

1. Continue to follow the stocks for an ing a split, then

begins to rise

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec additional two months. Would more

Telabs (TLAB) in 1999

profit be made by holding the stocks longer?

50

40

2. Research news on any stock that SPLIT

30

drops after a split and continues to 20

10

drop for a long time. Is there a reason 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec why the stock price is being beaten Disney (DIS) in 1999

down?

After several months of tracking stocks, buying, and selling, declare a stop to your project. Total your wins and losses. Did you make more money than you lost? Do you think this is a strategy that could be profitable if real money were used to do the trades?

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

103

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Project 26

Johnny Applesauce

Cinnamon: A mold inhibitor

Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

For centuries, people have used spices to

•

Microbiology

season their foods. Many kinds of commonly used spices exist, including allspice, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, mustard, nutmeg, Purpose or Problem

and pepper. These spices come from a group of plants.

The purpose is to reduce spoilage of Early cultures also realized some spices applesauce from microorganisms (mold) by had properties that helped preserve foods.

adding cinnamon to it. The cinnamon would The storage of food was very important to then serve a dual purpose, acting as both a early civilizations. They did not have the flavor enhancer and a mold inhibitor.

sophisticated techniques we have today to prolong the freshness of foods, which include 105

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chemical additives, refrigeration, and vacuum packing.

Procedure

Microorganism growth can quickly

shorten the time in which a food must be Place five level teaspoons of applesauce in consumed. Because many people like to each of the four small clear plastic cups. With sprinkle cinnamon on their applesauce, they a felt tip marker, sequentially number each would not mind the addition of a natural, cup: 1, 2, 3, and 4.

complementary spice like cinnamon being Cup 1 will be the control cup. Nothing used on their applesauce as a preservative. If will be added to it.

your project reveals that cinnamon is a good In cup 2, lightly and evenly sprinkle mold inhibitor, then would it be a good idea 1⁄4 teaspoon of cinnamon on top of the to add a little cinnamon to an opened jar of applesauce, completely covering its surface.

applesauce that is placed in the refrigerator to eat later in the week?

In cup 3, add 1⁄4 teaspoon of cinnamon to the applesauce and mix thoroughly. This is our “lightly added” mixture.

Hypothesis

In cup 4, add 1⁄2 teaspoon of cinnamon to the applesauce and mix thoroughly. This is Hypothesize that cinnamon is an effective our “more heavily added” mixture.

mold inhibitor for applesauce.

Materials’ List

APPLE SAUCE

CINNAMON

•

Four plastic 6- or 8-ounce clear plastic drinking cups

•

Small jar of applesauce

Set the cups in a dark area at a normal

•

Cinnamon

room temperature. Make sure the cups are

•

Tablespoon measure

out of the way, where they will not be

•

1⁄

disturbed.

4 teaspoon measure

•

Felt tip marker

After one week, examine each of the cups. Has mold formed in any of the cups?

•

Use of a closet or another dark area at Are the lightly covered or lightly mixed room temperature

applesauce cups free of mold?

•

One week of time

When your project is completed, dispose of the cups in the garbage. Do not to eat the applesauce from any of the cups.

Project 26: Johnny Applesauce

106

Project 26: Johnny Applesauce

Results

Something More

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

1. What is the smallest amount of

collected.

cinnamon that can be added to the

applesauce to make an observable

difference in mold growth? We do not Conclusion

want to have to add so much

cinnamon that no one would ever

want to eat it.

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

2. If mold did not grow on the covered applesauce, did it not grow because of the cinnamon or simply because it

was covered and kept from exposure

to the air? Try covering it with other substances, such as flour, and see if mold forms.

3. Determine if other popular spices, such as nutmeg, demonstrate mold

inhibitor properties.

107

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Project 27

Backfield in Motion

The effect of an electromagnetic field on single-celled organisms

Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

There has been a great debate over the years

•

Microbiology

as to whether or not magnetism has an effect on living cells. People on one side of the debate believe that living under high-power Purpose or Problem

electric lines causes harmful electromagnetic radiation that damages farmers’ crops and is unhealthy for their bodies. The magnetic field The purpose is to determine if there is any created by alternating current traveling effect in the behavior (the movement) of through electric power lines is a moving common one-celled organisms when in the field; the field expands and collapses many presence of a static electromagnetic field.

times each second. On the other side of the debate are those people who believe that static fields of magnetism (unlike those 109

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

generated by high-power electric lines) may single-celled organisms respond to this field be beneficial to health. They place magnets by moving toward or away from the wire?

on parts of their body to aid in healing various ailments and injuries.

No doubt, you have at some time placed a Hypothesis

magnet underneath a piece of paper or cardboard, sprinkled iron filings on top, and Hypothesize that several common one-celled tapped it to see a pattern as the filings form organisms will not show any response (to lines, showing the otherwise invisible move away from or to move toward the magnetic lines of force.

source) to a static electromagnetic field.

Bar magnet

placed under

Materials’ List

cardboard

Iron filings

arrange them-

selves to the lines

of magnetic force

•

Model train DC transformer

•

Small 12-volt light bulb and socket

•

Hook-up wire

•

Wire cutters

Magnetism is a phenomenon that is

•

Small slotted screwdriver

intimately related to electricity. Early

•

40x or 50x microscope

scientists realized this when they placed a

•

Microscope slide

compass next to a wire through which electricity was flowing. The compass needle

•

Petroleum jelly

was deflected when electricity was flowing in

•

Adhesive or masking tape

the wire.

•

Live single-celled organisms (euglena, When direct current (DC), which is the paramecium, flagellum, amoeba, and so type of current flow that comes from a forth)

battery, travels through a wire, a magnetic field extends out from the wire. Do common Procedure

Using hook-up wire, connect a model train Magnetic

field

Current flow

DC transformer to a 12-volt light bulb to make a complete circuit. Any variable power supply or DC power transformer is

Electric current flows through a wire causing a magnetic field to surround the wire appropriate, including one designed for model HO racing car sets. One piece of wire should be very long, so it can be draped Project 27: Backfield in Motion

110

Project 27: Backfield in Motion

across a slide on a microscope. The train Observe the organisms to be sure they are power supply has a variable control on it, so alive and moving around. Turn on the power the amount of electricity that flows in the supply and watch to see if any response circuit can be changed from zero to its full occurs by the organisms to the wire that now potential.

has an electromagnetic field surrounding it.

Position a microscope slide under the Try varying the amount of electricity microscope and lay the wire across the slide.

supplied through the wire. The light bulb will Use adhesive or masking tape to secure the give a visual indication that current is wire in place. Be sure the wire is flat against flowing, and its dimness or brightness is also the slide.

a relative gauge indicating the amount of current.

In the middle of the slide, squeeze a tube of petroleum jelly to form a “donut-shaped”

circle. This will act as a wall to contain a tiny liquid pool of microorganisms. If your petroleum jelly is in a jar, use an ice-pop PO

PA

WER

DC

CK

stick or a toothpick to form the petroleum dam.

Microscope slide

Lay wire through

the liquid

“Donut ring” dam of

petroleum jelly

Results

Liquid medium containing

one-celled organisms

Write down the results of your experiment.

From a science supply house or your high Document all observations and data

school biology teacher, obtain live single-collected.

celled microorganisms. They must be active organisms that are able to move on their own.

These include euglena, paramecium,

Conclusion

flagellum, and amoeba. Place a few small drops of the liquid medium containing the Come to a conclusion as to whether or not organisms in the “petroleum pool.” The your hypothesis was correct.

petroleum will not harm the organisms.

Set the microscope with a large-enough field of view so the wire and organisms around it can be seen.

111

Something More

1. Electromagnetic fields are also present in a wire carrying alternating current (AC). With AC, the electromagnetic

field builds and collapses many times each second. Repeat the experiment

using AC rather than DC. An AC

power supply can be obtained from

your local electronics store. An AC

doorbell transformer, available at your local hardware store, will also work.

2. Increase the magnetic field by

exposing single-celled organisms to the strong alternating magnetic field from a bulk tape eraser (available at electronic stores) used to erase audio and video tapes. Observe the

organisms.

Project 27: Backfield in Motion

112

Project 28

Green No More

Concepts in chlorophyll

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

In the fall, deciduous trees lose their leaves.

•

Botany

This is a brilliant display of gold, red, yellow, and orange put on by Mother Nature. During

•

Environmental Science

the spring and summer, these leaves are green.

Purpose or Problem

We know that plants use a process called photosynthesis to make food. They use chlorophyll, water, minerals, carbon dioxide, The purpose of this project is to determine if and, most importantly, sunlight in the chlorophyll is present in a leaf that is photosynthesis process. From experience, you normally green, but has turned brown.

have no doubt observed that photosynthesis stops when sunlight is cut off from a plant.

113

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Looking under a board that was thrown on a Alcohol is highly flammable, and must be patch of grass reveals the grass has lost its handled with care around heat. Because green color.

alcohol boils at a lower temperature than When a leaf falls from a tree and turns water, we can use a double-boiler system that brown, is chlorophyll still present?

will make it safer to handle for this project.

On a house plant, locate two leaves that are as close as possible to being the same Hypothesis

size. Using scissors, cut one leaf off the plant. Let it sit for several days until no green Hypothesize that even though photosynthesis coloring is left in the leaf. To identify the has ceased, some chlorophyll still remains in other leaf of the plant, loosely tie a piece of a brown leaf.

string around its stem.

Gather two test tubes. Fill each one half-full of alcohol. In one test tube, place the Materials’ List

brown leaf. Clip the leaf from the live plant (which you previously identified with a

•

Alcohol

string) and place it into the other test tube.

•

Two test tubes

Bring a small cooking pot filled with water to a rapid boil on a stove burner. Turn

•

Two test-tube holders

off the burner.

•

One house plant

Using test-tube holders, lower both test

•

Use of a stove burner

tubes into boiling water. Position the holders

•

Small cooking pot

and tubes, so the test tubes rest upright in the

•

Water

pot, or at least at a steep enough angle so no water gets into the tubes. An oven mitt may

•

Scissors

offer additional safety and comfort when

•

String

you work around the pot. Let the test tubes

•

Adult supervision

remain in the water for 10 to 15 minutes.

Procedure

Chlorophyll can be extracted from a leaf by placing it in a boiling bath of alcohol. If chlorophyll is present, the alcohol will begin to turn green. As a comparator, the more green the color of the alcohol, the greater the quantity of chlorophyll.

Project 28: Green No More

114

Project 28: Green No More

Remove the test tubes and observe the color of the alcohol. Is green present in both test tubes? If so, does one test tube contain Something More

more green than the other?

1. Is any chlorophyll present in grass that has turned white because of

Results

sunlight deprivation?

2. Are vegetables that are green (peas, Write down the results of your experiment.

string beans, lima beans, lettuce,

Document all observations and data

spinach, kale, mint, and so forth)

collected.

that color because they contain

chlorophyll? Check for the presence of chlorophyll in green vegetables.

Conclusion

Spinach and mint are leaves. Are your results different for these than for peas Come to a conclusion as to whether or not and beans?

your hypothesis was correct.

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Project 29

Not Just Lemonade

Determining if the addition of lemon to cleaning products is strictly for marketing purposes Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Lemons and lemon juice have long been used

•

Behavioral & Social

in cooking, drinks, and candies. But, walk down the aisles of a supermarket today and

•

Chemistry

you’ll see many cleaning products that boast of containing lemon (or at least a lemon scent). Look at the advertising on the labels Purpose or Problem

of general-purpose liquid cleaners, shower and tub cleaners, dishwashing soap, glass The purpose is to determine if the addition of cleaners, and shampoo. And, you’ll see lemon to cleaning products aids in actual marketing phrases highlighting lemon, such cleaning or if the only reason it is an as “Lemon Fresh!” and “New Lemon Scent!”

ingredient is to increase sales (because most The scent of lemon is a smell most

people associate the scent of lemon with people psychologically associate with cleanliness).

117

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cleanliness and freshness. Manufacturers have capitalized on this fact, as is evidenced Procedure

by their promotion of a lemon ingredient in their advertising.

Squeeze the juice from several lemons Is lemon added to household cleaners through a small piece of screen or a kitchen only for marketing purposes or does lemon strainer into a cup. The strainer will keep juice actually have cleaning properties?

pulp to a minimum.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that lemon juice is included as an ingredient in many cleaning products, not only for its psychological association with cleanliness and freshness, but also because it has true cleaning properties. (Or, you could hypothesize the opposite, that the addition of lemon is solely for marketing purposes.) Materials’ List

•

Several fresh lemons

•

Tarnished penny

•

Tarnished piece of silverware (fork,

spoon, bowl, and so forth)

•

Use of a glass window (car or house)

Evaluate the effect of pure lemon juice as

•

Use of a kitchen countertop

a cleaning agent on various surfaces by rubbing them with an old rag or washcloth.

•

Copper bottom pot

Surfaces to evaluate include a copper penny

•

Chrome surface

or a copper bottom pot; a tarnished piece of

•

Plastic item

silverware; a chrome surface, such as a

•

Dirty dinner dish

bathroom faucet; a kitchen countertop; a dirty dinner dish; a glass window in your home or

•

Greasy pan bacon was fried in

a car windshield; and something made of

•

Kitchen strainer or small piece of screen plastic (a child’s toy or a telephone). Try to

•

Cup

clean as many different surfaces as you can.

•

Old rag or washcloth

Do not, however, try to clean any valuable Project 29: Not Just Lemonade

118

Project 29: Not Just Lemonade

object, such as a wooden dining room table or the upholstery of a living room couch. You do not want to run the risk of staining or Something More

damaging any valued object. Lemon juice is acidic. Instead, use an old piece of fabric or How many products (other than food-an old discarded piece of furniture on which related products) can you find that have to experiment. Also, when you take a shower, lemon or lemon scent as an additive?

try lemon juice as a shampoo and a soap.

Soap? Laundry detergent? Car air

Just be careful not to get it into your eyes.

fresheners? Spray starch for ironing?

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document the effect of lemon juice on each surface. Did it make the surface cleaner? Did it leave the surface sticky? Did it leave a film on glass? Was it effective at dissolving grease?

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

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Project 30

Less Is More

Determining if pH increases as

standing rainwater evaporates

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

One environmental concern today centers on

•

Chemistry

the damaging effects of acid rain. Acid rain is a term used to describe precipitation (rain,

•

Earth Science

snow, hail, sleet, and fog) that has a low pH.

•

Environmental Science

The amount of alkalinity or acidity in a liquid is measured on a scale called the pH scale.

The scale goes from zero to 14, with zero Purpose or Problem

being the strongest acids, 7 neutral, and 14

the most alkaline.

The purpose is to determine if rainwater Because the Earth’s environment has becomes more acidic as it evaporates and natural sources of sulfur and nitrogen, it is concentrates the contents that are left. Does normal for rainwater to be slightly on the less water make more acidity?

acidic side, having a pH of 5. But when the 121

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pH drops to 4, scientists consider this acid rain.

Procedure

Scientists theorize that acid rain is caused by chemicals in the atmosphere, including Using a 6- or 8-ounce jar or a drinking glass, sulfur dioxide (produced by industries collect about 5 or 6 ounces of rainwater on a burning oil and coal) and nitrogen oxide rainy day. Place a large funnel in the top to (which comes from automobile exhaust).

increase the area of rainwater collection. Do Winds can carry these airborne chemicals not go outside to collect rainwater when thousands of miles. Acid rain has been lightning is present!

discovered in many areas around the world.

Acid rain attacks metal and stone

structures, and over a period of time can damage them. Most importantly, it can fall into ponds, lakes, and other bodies of water, where it can make the water too acidic for the animal and plant life to survive.

Does the acid in rainwater become even more concentrated as the water evaporates, thus worsening the effects of acid rain?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that as rainwater evaporates, the concentration of acidity increases (the pH of the remaining water decreases). Or, hypothesize the opposite to be true.

If it doesn’t rain enough to fill your jar, put a lid on the jar or cover it with a tight-Materials’ List

sealing piece of plastic wrap to prevent evaporation. Then, the next time it rains, set

•

6- or 8-ounce jar

out your collection jar and funnel again.

•

Large funnel

Indoors, place a large, shallow dinner

•

Rainy day

dish in an undisturbed area that, during sunny

•

Large, shallow dinner dish

days, receives a lot of warm sunlight. Pour as much rainwater into the dish as it will hold.

•

Sunny window

Using a pH test kit, determine the level of

•

Litmus paper pH test kit with color

acidity on the pH scale. Once a day, test the Project 30: Less Is More

comparator chart

122

Project 30: Less Is More

pH level, and then write down the date and the pH number. Continue testing daily until all the water has evaporated.

Something More

Has the water become measurably more acidic as it evaporated?

Acid rain can destroy plant and animal life living in bodies of water. Start a log You may want to enhance your project by of daily pH measurements of nearby lakes also testing the pH of small areas in your and ponds. In your daily log, include neighborhood daily, where rainwater collects: information on rainfall that occurs (the mud puddles, birdbaths, swales, depressions date and the inches of rain).

at the base of downspouts, and similar places.

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

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Project 31

Natural Fences

Finding natural pesticide substances Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Insect pests are something everyone must

•

Environmental Science

deal with around their home. Sour flies around fruit and ants in the kitchen can be a

•

Medicine & Health

nuisance. Hardware stores and supermarkets

•

Zoology

sell chemical pesticides, often in aerosol bottles, to spray in your home. But, some pesticide chemicals have the potential of Purpose or Problem

being hazardous to our health. We want to be careful about using chemicals around the The purpose is to try to find natural substances eating areas of our home, in rooms where that will act as a pesticide that can be safely children play, and in our yards when well used around the home.

water supplies our home.

125

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Are there more natural substances we could use to keep away common household Materials’ List

pests, such as flies, sour flies, and ants?

Natural substances (lemon juice or tea, for

•

Several lemons

example) would not only be safer, but they

•

Several grapefruits

also might smell better than a commercial pesticide product.

•

Tea bags

•

Three shallow bowls or dishes

•

Drinking glass

Hypothesis

•

Several bananas

•

Tea cup (or mug)

Several hypotheses can be developed:

•

Boiling water

•

Hypothesize that lemon juice can (or

can’t) be used as a natural deterrent for

•

Three spray bottles

fruit flies.

•

Two paper coffee filters

•

Hypothesize that grapefruit juice can (or

•

Funnel

can’t) be used as a natural deterrent for

•

Microwave oven (or a tea kettle and use fruit flies.

of a stove)

•

Hypothesize that concentrated tea can (or

•

Anthill

can’t) be used as a natural deterrent for

•

Glass jar with lid

fruit flies. (Also develop similar

hypotheses about ants.)

Procedure

Line a funnel with a paper coffee filter and set it in a drinking glass. Squeeze the juice from several lemons into the funnel filter.

Remove the funnel filter and pour the juice into a shallow, wide dish or bowl. Let the juice stand for a day or two to evaporate some of the water and make a more

concentrated solution.

In a similar way, squeeze the juice of a grapefruit through a funnel filter into a drinking glass. Then, pour into a shallow dish or bowl and allow the juice to evaporate for a day or two to make a more concentrated solution.

Project 31: Natural Fences

126

Project 31: Natural Fences

Make a cup of boiling water as you

• Testing effectiveness against ants. Locate would when you make a cup of tea, using an active anthill and capture several ants either a microwave oven or a tea kettle on a in a jar. On a board or outside on

stove. Steep several tea bags in the hot water.

pavement, set down the jar. Remove the Let cool. Then, pour the tea into a shallow sprayer from the lemon-filled spray bottle dish or bowl and let some of the water and pour a six-inch diameter circle evaporate for a day or two to make a around the jar. Open the jar of ants. Do concentrated solution.

the ants cross the ring of lemon?

Pour each of your three natural

Repeat using the grapefruit juice, and insecticide liquids in three spray bottles.

then the tea concentrate. To ensure that the ants are not simply responding to a

• Testing effectiveness against fruit flies.

liquid, lay a line of plain water in front of Fruit flies can often be seen hovering the ants to compare their behavior to your around a bowl of fruit. As fruit ripens, insecticides. Observe the behavior of the especially bananas, fruit flies can’t resist ants.

them. Would spraying bananas with a natural substance such as grapefruit juice, lemon juice, or tea deter fruit flies?

Results

Place several bananas in a bowl and allow them to ripen and draw fruit flies.

Write down the results of your experiment.

When fruit flies appear, cut one of the Document all observations and data

ripened bananas lengthwise in half, and collected.

then cut each half lengthwise in half again, making four pieces of banana. Lay them out, side by side, and observe the Conclusion

behavior of fruit flies around the pieces.

Spray one piece of banana with your Come to a conclusion as to whether or not lemon concentrate, another with the your hypothesis was correct.

grapefruit concentrate, and another with the tea concentrate. Leave the fourth piece alone as a control.

Lay the pieces out again, but leave four or five inches between each one.

Observe the behavior of the fruit flies. Do any of the sprayed banana pieces appear to repel the flies?

127

Something More

Try your natural insecticides

(concentrated lemon juice, grapefruit juice, and tea) with worms. Lay a line of your insecticide in front of a worm and observe its behavior. Does it cross the line? To ensure that the worm is not simply responding to a liquid, lay a line of plain water in front of the worm to compare its behavior to your insecticides.

Are spiders affected by insecticides?

Project 31: Natural Fences

128

Project 32

The Nose Knows

Olfactory identification differences by age Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

Your nose receives a variety of smells each

•

Behavioral & Social

day, and many different smells throughout your lifetime. Your mind often associates a specific smell with a visual scene. The smell Purpose or Problem

of seaweed may remind you of the sea, if you live by or have visited a seashore. The smell of pine may make you think of the Christmas The purpose is to determine if the

holiday, when a live tree was decorated in accumulation of life experiences by adults your home. The aroma of baking cookies enables them to be better able to identify may remind you of being with your

smells than young people.

grandmother in her kitchen. The smell of a geranium may remind you of a plant in a neighbor’s window sill.

129

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These smells and their associations are

•

Fresh-baked cookies

imbedded in our minds as we go through life

•

Vanilla extract

and enjoy many different experiences.

•

Ten adults to survey

Certain smells may not be identifiable to young people who have never experienced

•

Ten young teenagers to survey

them. For example, the strong smell of

•

Ten small jars with screw-on lids (such as mothballs is easily identifiable by many baby food jars)

adults, but because much of our clothing

•

Black construction paper

today is made from synthetic materials, moth

•

Adhesive tape

balls are not as popular as they once were.

The smell of household lubricating oil may make an older adult male think of playing Procedure

with an Erector construction toy set as a child. Burning leaves may remind an adult of diving into tall piles of raked leaves in the Find ten small jars with lids. Cover the sides fall when they were little.

of the jars with black construction paper, using adhesive tape, to prevent anyone from Smells play a very important part of our seeing inside the jars.

life experiences.

Gather ten items that have distinctive smells. Suggested items are given above in Hypothesis

the Materials’ List (mothballs, cinnamon, and so forth). Place a sample of each item in its own jar and screw on the lid.

Hypothesize that when presented with a group of common smells, a larger percentage of adults will be able to correctly identify the smells than will those of a younger age.

Materials’ List

•

Household oil

•

Mothballs

•

Leather product (such as a wallet)

•

Cinnamon

•

Clove

•

Geranium plant

•

Piece of cedar wood

Project 32: The Nose Knows

•

Pine tree branch

130

Project 32: The Nose Knows

Expose ten adults and ten young teenage students to each of the smells. Have each subject close their eyes when they smell the Something More

samples. Set up a log and keep a record of the number of items (and which items) each 1. Analyze the number of correct

surveyed subject correctly identifies. You identifications of each item by adults, may want to later tabulate your results using and then by students. Did most adults a computer spreadsheet program with correctly guess particular items, while graphing capabilities.

few students could? This may be a

Did a larger percentage of adults than reflection on our changing society.

students correctly identify the sample items?

Mothballs, as mentioned earlier, may not be familiar to many students,

because moth balls are not as common Results

as they once were in most households.

2. Compare your results by male and Write down the results of your experiment.

female subjects. Are certain items

Document all observations and data

more easily identified by specific

collected.

genders? For example, because more

males probably play the sport of

baseball than females, hypothesize

Conclusion

that the smell of a new baseball glove may be more familiar to males than

females.

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

3. Smells may cause memory recollection better than images.

4. The nose continues to grow throughout life and beyond!

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Project 33

Germ Jungle

Checking for the presence

of bacteria on public surfaces

infectious bacteria into their homes after Suggested Entry

visiting a public place.

Categories

Overview

•

Biochemistry

•

Microbiology

Think about the many surfaces your hands

•

Environmental Science

touch each day, at home, school, work, the library, and shopping malls. How many other people have touched those same surfaces?

Purpose or Problem

Money, shopping-cart handles, door knobs, telephones, ATM keypads, escalator

The purpose of this project is to determine if handrails, gym equipment, and hundreds of bacteria exists on many commonly touched other surfaces are touched by many different public surfaces. If so, then it is important that people throughout each day. A research study people are aware of the potential for bringing done by the University of Arizona examined 133

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

encourage you to use household disinfectant-cleaning products around kitchens and bathrooms.

Money

ATM keypads

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that the presence of bacteria will Shopping cart

handles

be found on many publicly touched surfaces, posing a potential health hazard to those who come in contact with those surfaces.

Telephone

mouthpieces

Materials’ List

Door knobs

more than 800 public surfaces in three states,

•

Box of cotton swabs

and found the potential risk of bringing

•

Eleven petri dishes

harmful bacteria into the home is alarmingly

•

Agar

high.

•

Masking tape

Bringing bacteria into your home can

•

Visit to a public shopping center or mall create a health risk for you and your family.

Federal health officials estimate that 80,000

•

Pen and paper

people die each year of infectious bacteria,

•

Possible adult supervision needed

making it the third leading cause of death in the United States (after cancer and heart-related problems).

Procedure

Once bacteria enter your home, it can be spread around quickly. A person can Collect 11 petri dishes and line the inside of contaminate and recontaminate frequently them with agar. Your high-school science touched surfaces, such as refrigerator door teacher may be able to supply you with these handles, TV remote controls, and door knobs.

items. A petri dish is a shallow, round, That’s why it is extremely important to wash transparent dish with an overlapping cover.

your hands when you return home from a Agar is a gelatin substance that is a food, or public place.

“culture,” in which bacteria can be grown.

The results of this experiment should help Place a small piece of masking tape on the make you, your family, and your friends cover of each petri dish; the tape will be used more aware of the importance of washing as a label on which to write and identify the your hands after visiting a public place, and contents.

Project 33: Germ Jungle

134

Project 33: Germ Jungle

Open a new, sealed package of cotton dispose of them in the trash. Never open swabs. As a control, wipe the swab in a petri the petri dishes once they are sealed!

dish with agar. On the masking tape on the cover, write, “cotton swap straight from the box.” If no bacteria grows in this dish, we Results

can safely assume the swabs are clean, and they are not introducing any bacteria into the Write down the results of your experiment.

other petri dishes.

Document all observations and data collected.

Visit a busy shopping center. Identify ten highly touched surfaces, including the mouthpiece of a public telephone, door Conclusion

handles, ATM keypads, and other surfaces that you observe are being touched frequently.

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not For each item, use a cotton swab to wipe your hypothesis was correct.

the surface. Then, wipe the swab into the agar. Dispose of the swab. Wrap a piece of masking tape around the petri dish, securing the lid to the bottom. On the dish’s masking-tape label, write the name of the surface from Something More

which the sample was taken (ATM keypad, door handle, and so on).

1. Check the effectiveness of the

household disinfectant cleaners. Using When you arrive home, place all 11 petri cotton swabs, wipe different surfaces dishes in a location that is out of the way, but in your kitchen and bathroom areas, that will remain at room temperature. The and then transfer the swabs to agar in petri dish and agar make optimum growing petri dishes. Then, use a common

conditions for bacteria. The agar gives household disinfectant cleaner to wipe bacteria food and proper moisture, and the same surfaces. Again, use cotton nothing will disturb or interfere with the swabs to wipe the surfaces, and

bacteria’s growth.

transfer them to petri dishes. Compare Make daily observations and keep a log the growth in the petri dishes.

for all the samples. Bacteria are too small to 2. If you live near a university, you may see, even with a standard microscope. But, if be able to make contact with someone bacteria are present, you will eventually who would allow you to use their

observe a large colony of growth on the agar.

electron microscope to identify the It is important to realize that you are bacteria you have collected from

growing bacteria, which may pose a health various public surfaces. Unfortunately, hazard. Therefore, when this project is bacteria are too small to be identified completed, keep the petri dishes sealed and using an ordinary microscope.

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Project 34

Not ’til Christmas

Determining adherence to instructions by gender Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

The Christmas holiday (or your birthday) is

•

Behavioral & Social

approaching, and a wrapped present with your name on it is sitting on the kitchen table. Can you resist shaking it and trying to Purpose or Problem

determine its contents? Would you try to unwrap it just enough to peek inside, and then tape it back up again? Or, do you have The purpose of this project is to determine if the willpower and strong character to resist a behavioral difference exists between high-the temptation?

school male and female students regarding their attitude toward following instructions.

If a box labeled “Do Not Open” is placed in your school’s cafeteria or another high-traffic area, do you think some students will open it? Do you think more males than 137

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

females will open it? What do you think would motivate those students to open it: Procedure

Curiosity? A lack of willpower? A tendency not to heed advice or to be defiant?

Using plywood for the sides and 1ϫ2 or similar framing pieces of lumber, construct a box about one-foot square in size. The top Hypothesis

side of the box must be hinged with a handle, so it can be opened. We want the box to look Hypothesize that a larger percentage of high-like it is very easy to open by simply lifting a school male students will attempt to open a handle.

box labeled “Do Not Open” than females (or With a large marking pen and paper (or hypothesize just the opposite).

use a computer and printer), print “Do Not Open” in big letters on the paper, and tape (or glue) it to the top of the box.

Materials’ List

•

Plywood

DO NOT OPEN

•

Framing pieces of 1ϫ2 lumber

•

Small wood screws

•

Two small hinges

•

Cabinet handle

•

Paper and pencil

•

Marker pens

•

Adhesive tape (or glue)

On another piece of paper, write “Please

•

Camcorder (or video tape recorder with do not tell anyone what you saw inside this camera)

box” and place that paper inside the box at

•

Use of a saw (have adult supervision if the bottom.

a power saw is used)

Get permission to set the box in a

•

Permission to set up your project in the prominent place in the school cafeteria school cafeteria during lunch

during lunch. The location should be where

•

Possible adult supervision, if needed

nearly everyone must pass by the box.

At a safe distance away, set up a

camcorder or a camera with a video tape recorder, so you can record students without their knowledge as they are standing at the box. Turn the recorder on and let it run throughout the lunch period.

Project 34: Not ’til Christmas

138

Project 34: Not ’til Christmas

Later, use the video tape to total the number of males who approached the box and read the sign, and the number of females Something More

who approached and read the box. Also, log the number of males who opened the lid and 1. Survey the students who opened the the number of females who opened the lid.

box and ask if they can explain why Calculate the percentage of males who they disobeyed the sign.

opened the lid. Divide the number of male 2. Hypothesize that adult teachers and students who lifted the lid by the total staff will show greater regard for

number of males who approached and read instructions and won’t open the box, the sign. Then, multiply this answer by 100

and they will have a lower percentage (to arrive at the percent). Similarly, compute of “openers.”

the percent for female students.

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

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Project 35

Space Farm

The effect of artificial gravity

on radish-seed germination

additional force perpendicular to the Earth’s Suggested Entry

gravity.

Categories

Overview

•

Botany

•

Earth & Space

Scientists are working on ways to grow food

•

Environmental Science

in space, as this will be very important if

•

Physics

people are eventually to live on space stations for extended periods of time. One type of study that has been going on for years is Purpose or Problem

hydroponics, which is growing plants with water, air, and nutrients, but no soil.

The purpose of this project is to determine if We have seen Hollywood science-fiction roots and stems that grow out from

movies and TV shows depicting huge space germinating seeds are affected by an stations that are rotating to make an artificial 141

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gravity inside. This is similar to the force that

•

Water

holds water in a pail when it is upside down

•

Eyedropper

as you swing it around with your arm or on a

•

Scissors

rope.

•

15 days of time

Normally, when a seed germinates, a stem grows skyward and a root extends down into the ground. Why? Is the root seeking Procedure

water? Is gravity the factor that determines the direction of the sprouts? This may be important to know in the future as our quest LP (long-playing) record albums are 12

for living in space becomes closer to reality.

inches in diameter. Cut a 12-inch diameter circle from a piece of stiff cardboard or a Obviously, we will not be able to remove sheet of poster board. With a pencil point or the effect of the Earth’s gravity. Our scissors, poke a hole in the exact center of experiment will determine if the spinning the board, so it will slide down over a turntable exerts enough force in a different turntable’s spindle.

direction to act as an artificial gravity.

Geotropism is the response of a plant to Pour potting soil into five small plastic gravity.

drinking cups, to a depth of one inch.

Moisten the soil with water, but do not flood it.

Hypothesis

Push one radish seed into the soil in each of four plastic cups. In the fifth cup, push Hypothesize that seeds planted while being three or four seeds. The fifth cup is our spun on a record player turntable at 33 RPMs control cup, which will prove that the seeds will germinate, and their roots and stems will in the pack and the growing environment are grow parallel with the Earth, rather than viable. Set this fifth cup aside in an out-of-perpendicular as they normally would.

the-way area in the room where your project will be placed.

Push the cardboard disc over the spindle Materials’ List

and down onto the platter of a record player turntable. Be sure the disc moves when the

•

Record player turntable

turntable is spinning, and that the disc’s hole is not too tight around the spindle.

•

One package of radish seeds

At four opposite “sides” of the cardboard

•

Five small plastic drinking cups (about circle, place a few drops of glue (at 12, 3, 6, 5 ounces)

and 9 o’clock positions). Set a cup on each

•

Sheet of stiff cardboard or poster board spot of glue. Let dry several hours.

•

Paper glue

Project 35: Space Farm

•

Potting soil

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Project 35: Space Farm

Something More

1. If the seeds germinated, did the stems grow toward the turntable’s spindle and the roots away from it?

Power up the turntable, setting it at a 2. Set the turntable to 45 RPMs and speed of 33 RPMs (revolutions per minute).

repeat the experiment. The higher

Daily, add water equally to all five cups to turntable speed will exert more force keep the soil slightly moist. You may want to on the seeds. Compare the results of use an eyedropper to ensure an equal quantity seed germination at 33 RPMs and

of water is added to all cups. The turntable 45 RPMs.

must run continually, except when you’re adding water or making observations.

Make observations daily for 15 days, and write down your observations. Did the seeds germinate? If so, which direction (relative to the Earth’s surface) did the roots grow?

Which direction did the stems grow?

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

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Project 36

Cooled Off

Comparison study between the cooling effect of evaporating water and alcohol

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

The process of evaporation produces a

•

Engineering

cooling effect. Pour a few drops of water onto the back of your hand. Next, swing your

•

Physics

arm back and forth. Do you feel your skin

•

Medicine & Health

getting cooler?

Now pour a few drops of alcohol onto the back of your hand and swing your arm again.

Purpose or Problem

Does your skin feel even cooler?

Alcohol evaporates faster than water and, The purpose is to determine if the temperature thus, creates a cooler temperature. When of an object can be cooled more by

children run dangerously high fevers, doctors evaporating alcohol surrounding it than by sometimes give them a bath in alcohol to water or air.

145

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reduce their external temperature, which, in turn, reduces their internal temperature.

Procedure

How much change in temperature occurs between alcohol and water evaporation?

Mount three thermometers side-by-side onto a piece of two-foot-square plywood, using adhesive tape or duct tape. Do not cover Hypothesis

either the thermometer’s bulb or the area on the scale around the 70°F mark. The board Hypothesize that a greater percent change in needs to stand vertically, so using a few temperature will take place when alcohol is pieces of small 1ϫ1 or 1ϫ2 lumber and evaporated rapidly than when water is wood screws, construct support struts onto evaporated.

the plywood to enable it to stand upright.

Cut three identical four-inch squares in a piece of an old T-shirt or flannel shirt. Fold Materials’ List

each in half, and then fold in half again. Slip a piece of cloth over the bulb of each

•

Two-foot-square piece of plywood

thermometer. Use thumbtacks to hold the cloths in place, pushing one thumbtack on

•

Several pieces of 1ϫ2 lumber

either side of each bulb through the cloth and

•

Wood screws

into the board.

•

Saw

Set the thermometers on a table. Place an

•

Screwdriver

electric fan in front of the thermometers,

•

Three thermometers

positioning the fan so a high volume of moving air hits the bulbs.

•

Duct tape or adhesive tape

•

Six thumbtacks

Thermometers

Duct tape

•

Old T-shirt or flannel shirt

•

Alcohol

•

Water

•

Electric fan

Cloth

Thumbtacks

Project 36: Cooled Off

146

Project 36: Cooled Off

Let the thermometers sit for ten minutes to stabilize at room temperature. Label each Results

thermometer A, B, and C. Write down the temperature reading on each thermometer. It Write down the results of your experiment.

does not matter if they are not precisely Document all observations and data

calibrated, and they do not all need to have collected.

exactly the same temperature.

Soak the cloth around thermometer A’s bulb with rubbing alcohol. Soak the cloth Conclusion

around thermometer B’s bulb with water.

Leave C dry.

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not Turn on the fan. Monitor the three

your hypothesis was correct.

temperatures for several minutes. Record the lowest temperature reading on each

thermometer.

Calculate the percent change in

temperature of each thermometer. Percent Something More

change is calculated by subtracting the lowest temperature reading from the room-1. Does the velocity of the moving air temperature reading, dividing that answer by affect the temperature of evaporation?

the original room temperature reading, and Repeat the experiment, once with the then multiplying by 100 (to put the answer in fan on its lowest setting, and then percent). For example, if a thermometer reads once on its highest setting. Graph

72°F at room temperature, and then drops to your results, drawing them on graph 68°F during the experiment:

paper or using a computer spreadsheet program that prints graphs from

72°F Ϫ 68°F ϭ 4°F

entered data.

(4/72) ϫ 100 ϭ 5.56%

2. In an environment where humidity is high, will the evaporation of alcohol Did the alcohol-soaked bulb drop the and water still result in a cooling lowest? Why doesn’t it matter whether all the effect? Repeat the experiment in a

thermometers were calibrated to read exactly steamy environment.

the same at room temperature?

3. How does the fact that evaporation causes a cooling effect relate to wind-chill factor?

4. How do air conditioners work?

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Project 37

Pass the Mold

A study on the capability of common bread mold to be transferred from one food to another Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Have you ever opened the refrigerator to find

•

Environmental Science

an old, leftover food that had mold growing on it? Have you ever opened a loaf of bread

•

Microbiology

that has been in the bread box for a long time

•

Health & Medicine

and seen green mold spreading over it?

Mold growth is quite common, but many people are very allergic to mold. It may Purpose or Problem

aggravate allergies or respiratory problems.

Can bread mold become airborne and, The purpose is to study the capability of therefore, become a health hazard?

common bread mold to be transferred through the air and contaminate other foods.

149

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masks are available at the hardware store or Hypothesis

your local pharmacy.

Take two other slices of fresh bread. Add Hypothesize that common bread mold can be 15 drops of water to each slice. Place one in transferred by air to contaminate other foods.

a sealable plastic bag. This will be the control (You may also choose to hypothesize that slice.

mold does not become airborne.)

Remove one of the slices of moldy bread from its bag. Hold it over the other slice of fresh bread and shake it vigorously. Place the Materials’ List

fresh bread in a sealable plastic bag as a control. Put the mold-covered bread back into

•

Fresh bakery bread

the bag, seal it, and discard it in the trash.

•

Orange

Cut an orange in half. Place one-half in a

•

Banana

sealable plastic bag as a control. Shake a piece of moldy bread over the other half of

•

Sealable plastic food bags

the orange. Place the moldy bread back in its

•

Eyedropper

bag and discard it in the trash. Place the

•

Water

orange half in a plastic bag.

Peel a banana, and cut it in half

lengthwise. Place one half in a sealable Procedure

plastic bag as a control. Shake a piece of moldy bread over the other half. Place the Grow bread mold on three slices of bread.

moldy bread back in its bag and discard it in You will need bread that does not contain the trash.

“mold inhibitors,” which are ingredients in most store-bought bread. Try bread from a local bakery and ask if it contains mold inhibitors, or try a piece of rye bread, which molds more easily.

Using an eyedropper, place 15 drops of water on each slice of bread. Place the bread in sealable plastic-food wrap bags.

Let the bags sit for several days until a large amount of mold grows on them. Once a large amount of mold has grown on the three slices of bread, proceed. If you are sensitive to mold or have allergies, wear a mask when you do the next step. Paper filter Project 37: Pass the Mold

150

Project 37: Pass the Mold

Monitor the slices of bread, orange, and banana for several days. Does mold form on them? If so, does it form faster or in more Something More

abundance on the food over which the moldy slices of bread were shaken?

Try shaking a piece of moldy bread over other food substances, such as flour and corn starch. Add moisture and place in Results

sealable containers. Does mold grow?

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

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Project 38

Hardwood Café

Determining if bracket fungi

are parasites or saprophytes

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

“Bracket” or “shelf” fungi can be found in

•

Botany

wooded areas growing on the sides of trees, fashioning themselves as little shelves, perhaps

•

Environmental Science

for elves! Fungi do not photosynthesize, as

•

Microbiology

do other plants. They get their nourishment from a host they live on. If a plant gets its nourishment from a host organism that is dead Purpose or Problem

and decaying, it is called a saprophyte. If the host is a living organism, the feeding plant is The purpose is to discover whether bracket called a parasite.

fungi are parasites or saprophytes.

153

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Are bracket fungi saprophytes, parasites, or both?

Materials’ List

Trees have tiny tubes that transport water, nutrients, and waste throughout their system.

•

Wooded area

These tubes are called xylem (which transport

•

Chisel

wastes) and phloem (which transport food).

Trees grow from the outer layer just beneath the bark. The bark is not living. Our project Procedure

is to locate bracket fungi and carefully chip away at the bark of the host tree and see if In a forest or wooded area, locate trees on any “roots” or threadlike structures penetrate which bracket fungi are growing. Using a through the bark and into the live layer of the chisel, carefully pry pieces of bark off the tree. If this is the case, then bracket fungi is tree around the bracket fungi. Try to most likely a parasite. If not, it is most likely determine if any part of the fungi extends a saprophyte.

through the bark and into the soft, live layer of the tree. To avoid injuring the tree, do not remove too much bark.

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that bracket fungi are

saprophytes (or hypothesize that they are parasites, or that they are found on both live and dead trees).

Project 38: Hardwood Café

154

Project 38: Hardwood Café

Something More

Carefully search through a large area in the forest, noting any presence of bracket fungi. Are the trees where you find the fungi dead or alive, or do you find them on both dead and live trees?

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Project 39

Web Crawlers

Determining the effectiveness of various Internet search engines

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

The invention of the Internet has become one

•

Behavioral & Social

of the most life-changing and society-changing tools of our lifetime. Anyone who

•

Engineering (Software/Communications

needs to do research or who requires Engineering)

information on a particular subject has access

•

Math & Computers

to a wealth of data and up-to-the-minute news and published research on that subject.

The problem is this: Since the Internet is Purpose or Problem

so vast, how do you search through all the information to uncover the data that is of The problem is finding specific information interest to you?

among the vast data available on the Internet.

An Internet search engine is a software program used to look constantly through the 157

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

entire World Wide Web (the Web) and it indexes all the sites found there. The engine Procedure

utilizes indexing software, sometimes referred to as robots, bots, or spiders. These Make a list of a dozen specific subjects spiders and bots “crawl” around the Web (perhaps a certain type of bacteria or a type looking for new or updated pages. They of unusual plant). With a computer connected travel from address to address, known as to the Internet, use various search engines to Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), until search for that topic. Write down how many they have visited every site on the Web.

references each engine found. Then, look at This is a monumental task, though, even each site that is referenced, and count how for computer software working at

many are relevant and how many do not fantastically high speeds. Because of the apply to your topic.

huge number of sites, it may take a long time for spiders and bots to get to every site.

Therefore, it is possible for one search engine to give you different results than another.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that when searching for a particular subject on the Internet, different search engines will yield different results.

Therefore, to thoroughly scan the Internet For example, a popular term for one stock database for specific information, you should market strategy is “rolling stock.” Rolling always use more than one search engine.

stock identifies a stock whose price is fluctuating up and down in a narrow range, enabling a stock market trader to buy the Materials’ List

stock when it is at the low part of its range, and then sell it when it rolls up to a

•

Computer connected to the Internet

resistance price. However, if you use search engines to look for rolling stock, the results will also include links to the railroad industry, because that term is used to mean transporting cattle by rail.

Popular search engines include Google, Ask Jeeves, Excite, Infoseek, Lycos, Alta Vista, Webcrawler, and Yahoo!.

Project 39: Web Crawlers

158

Project 39: Web Crawlers

Did different search engines give different results? Which search engine produced the most consistently relevant results?

Something More

Technically, some of the software we use Results

to search the Web is not truly a search engine, but rather a “directory.” A true Write down the results of your experiment.

search engine only needs the address of a Document all observations and data

web site. Then, an indexing agent (like a collected.

spider) does the rest. A directory requires the owner of a web site to provide the directory with a list of categories under Conclusion

which the site should be catalogued.

Excite, Infoseek, Lycos, Alta Vista, and Webcrawler are example of search

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not engines. Yahoo! is an example of a

your hypothesis was correct.

directory, just as The Yellow Pages in your telephone book is an example of a directory. Compare the results of

searching for a subject using a search engine and a directory.

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Project 40

Night Watch

Circadian rhythms: Training a house plant to be awake at night

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Are you tired at 3 A.M., and wide awake with

•

Botany

lots of energy at 3 P.M.? Our bodies have a natural pattern of sleep and waking times.

•

Environmental Science

Have you ever tried to switch your sleep/wake time, so you are awake in the night and sleep in the day? Certain jobs, such as factory or Purpose or Problem

police swing-shift workers, have alternating day/night work schedules. People who travel The purpose is to see if a plant’s natural to foreign countries often suffer jet lag, as biological rhythms are upset (as evidenced by their bodies’ “circadian rhythms” are upset by an observable change in the plant) when the different times of sunlight and eating normal daylight and dark nighttime periods meals. Jet lag can cause many problems, are reversed.

including fatigue, cloudy thinking, and irritability.

161

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Plants, animals, and people have daily biological rhythms. As far back as the fourth Procedure

century BC, the scribe of Alexander the Great, Androsthenes, observed that the leaves Obtain nine equally healthy, identical types of certain trees opened during the day and of house plants. Obtain two equal wattage closed at night. Leaves of the heliotrope plant plant grow lights, available at your local have a similar action, as do day lilies. Bees nursery or garden center. These indoor lights visit flowers at specific times of the day.

supply the proper wavelengths of light to Rhythms in other animals are also now well grow plants without sunlight. Locate two known.

closets that are on the same floor in your Just as people need a period of rest at home. They must have doors on them, so some time during a day/night cycle, so do when the doors are closed, the closets are plants. If we change the time of day a plant is completely dark.

exposed to light, will that result in a Place three plants in each closet. Place a noticeable effect on its growth or health?

plant grow light in each closet. Set the three other plants in an out-of-the-way area in a living room or dining room, where they will Hypothesis

receive ample light, but not be in direct sunlight from a window. The plants in the Hypothesize that changing the time of light living room will receive normal light during and dark during a 24-hour period will cause daylight hours and normal darkness in the an observable effect on a plant within an room at night.

eight-week period. Observable effects include growth, color, size, turgor, and general healthy appearance. (You may want to hypothesize that no noticeable effects will occur.)

Materials’ List

•

Nine equally healthy house plants

•

Two dark closets

•

Two plant grow light bulbs

•

Kitchen measuring cup

•

Eight weeks of time

Project 40: Night Watch

162

Project 40: Night Watch

For the plants in one closet, turn the plant light on from 8 A.M. to 8 P.M. daily, leaving them in the dark during the evening.

Something More

In the other closet, turn the plant light on from 8

1. Deprive a plant of a rest period.

P.M. to 8 A.M., so the plants are in the dark during the day, but receive light during Compare a plant that gets a normal

the night.

amount of light during the day and

dark at night to a plant that receives Monitor the plants for eight weeks. When constant light and is never allowed a you water the plants, use a kitchen measuring rest cycle. Observe the appearances of cup, so you give an equal amount of water to the plants after eight weeks under

each of the nine plants. Keep the soil moist, these conditions. Use at least four but not drenched. Another constant—

plants, two under each condition.

temperature—is assumed to be about equal in the closets and living room.

2. Experiment with plants that

demonstrate a very visible biological rhythm (for example, day lilies and Results

morning glories).

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

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Project 41

Time for the Concert

A study of the effect of temperature on the chirping of crickets

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

On warm nights in the spring or summer, in

•

Behavioral & Social

quiet wooded areas, the sound of chirping crickets fills the air. Do the number of chirps

•

Environmental

increase as the temperature increases? Do

•

Zoology

you recall ever hearing crickets on cold evenings? Is there a cool temperature below which crickets will not chirp? If so, you can Purpose or Problem

get an idea of the outdoor temperature by listening to the sound (or the absence of The purpose is to see if temperature affects sound) of chirping crickets.

the chirping activity of crickets.

165

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Raise the temperature by placing a heat Hypothesis

rock in the container. Heat rocks are available at pet shops, and they are used for many Hypothesize that temperature has an effect on reptiles, such as lizards and iguanas. Record the chirping sound made by crickets.

the temperature as it increases. Use a tape recorder to record the chirping sounds. Talk into the microphone, announcing the Materials’ List

temperature as each degree changes.

Next, lower the temperature in the

•

Several common house crickets

container by removing the heat rock and placing sealable plastic food bags filled with

•

Pet “critter cage,” empty aquarium tank, ice cubes into the container. Continue to or similar container

monitor the temperature and record the

•

Pet heat rock

sounds.

•

Thermometer

•

Ice cubes

•

Sealable plastic food bags

•

Tape recorder

•

Paper and pencil

Procedure

Obtain several common household crickets.

If your crickets do not chirp, could it be They can usually be purchased at local pet they are nocturnal? Are the crickets waiting shops, because they are used as feeders (food for evening or for the sky to get dark?

for larger pets). Place the crickets in a Is there a temperature below which the container with solid, clear sides. “Critter crickets are silent? Do crickets chirp louder cages,” used for snails, or empty aquarium or with an increased number of chirps as the tanks have the kind of sides you want. You temperature increases? Use the tape recorder may want to make your crickets more to compare sounds made at different comfortable by introducing food and a water temperatures.

dish into the container. Check with your pet shop personnel for assistance.

Place a thermometer in the container with the crickets. Record the current temperature and make note as to whether or not the crickets are chirping.

Project 41: Time for the Concert 166

Project 41: Time for the Concert Results

Something More

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

Grasshoppers are said to chirp loudest at collected.

95°F and are unable to chirp when the temperature falls below 62°F, unable to fly below 45°F, and unable to jump below Conclusion

36°F. Conduct an experiment to see if these statements can be supported by your experimental data.

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

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Project 42

Flying, Walking, Crawling

Natural bait to keep pests at bay during picnics of soft drinks regarding their attractiveness to Suggested Entry

picnic pests.

Categories

Overview

•

Behavioral & Social

•

Zoology

Along with the great outdoors comes a great abundance of picnic pests, that is, insects and bugs, that can take some of the enjoyment Purpose or Problem

out of a day by the pool or a backyard picnic.

We noticed that when we throw empty The problem is that people who enjoy soda (soft drink) cans in our recycle trash can outdoor picnics are often plagued by insect (which does not have a lid), bee-like flying pests, including flying insects, as well as ants insects appear, flying around the cans. They and other crawling creatures. The purpose of are not present when other types of jars and this project is to do a study on popular brands cans are discarded. Is something in soda that 169

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

is attractive to these insects? Could soda also be attractive to other types of pests? If so, soda could be poured out in pie pans and placed at various points around the perimeter of a backyard, hopefully, to act as bait and keep pests away from people in the yard.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that one or more brands of soda will be attractive to flying-insect pests. You may also hypothesize that whatever brand of (cola, root beer, orange). Pour one type of soda is attractive to one type of insect will soda into each pie pan.

also be attractive to other types of insects.

Monitor the pans for several hours.

Observe any insects that appear to be Materials’ List

“hanging around” the pans. Make notes on which pans are visited the most. See if any insects are floating in the soda.

•

Warm day

If few insects visit your pans, repeat the

•

Seven different types of soda

experiment in the early evening before the

•

Seven pie pans

Sun sets. The cooler temperature of evening

•

Use of a backyard

may bring more insects out of hiding.

•

Picnic table

Did any of the soda pans attract visitors?

Did one type attract more than another? If so, what do you think caused the attraction Procedure

(color, flavor, type of sugar—diet/regular—

and so forth)?

On a warm day, when mosquitoes or other Pick up a field guide on local insects at a flying insects are present in a backyard, set book shop or the library, and try to identify seven pie pans on a picnic table. Disposable any insects you see.

aluminum pie pans can be used, but if they have holes in the bottom, line them with tinfoil to make them watertight.

Purchase a selection of seven different types of soda. Include a mixture of dark colored, clear, diet, and different flavors Project 42: Flying, Walking, Crawling 170

Project 42: Flying, Walking, Crawling Results

Something More

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

1. If the soda-filled pie pans are placed collected.

on the ground, will they also act as bait to deter crawling pests (ants, crickets, and so forth) from a picnic Conclusion

blanket you place on the ground?

2. Repeat the project in the late evening, Come to a conclusion as to whether or not when nocturnal pests are active. Are your hypothesis was correct.

more pests found around the soda

pans at night than during the day? Are they different types of insects?

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Project 43

High-Tech Times

A study of the willingness of people in different age groups to adapt to new technology Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

The technological advances we have seen,

•

Behavioral & Social

especially in the last few decades, have changed the way we do many things. The

•

Math & Computers

Internet as a source for news, entertainment, research, buying goods, and stock market trading has revolutionized the home Purpose or Problem

computer. The computer itself has changed the way many of us work and play. VCRs, New technology is invading our lives at an cellular phones, ATM bank machines, e-mail, ever-increasing rate. While many people find and a host of other new inventions have made new technology exciting and can’t wait to get our work and pleasure time easier and more involved in it, some people may feel intimidated enjoyable.

by it, or feel that it only complicates their lives and puts more stress on them.

173

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Hypothesis

Hypothesize that when people of different age groups are surveyed about their use of new technology, a greater percentage of younger people will answer “Yes” to their use of it than will older people.

Materials’ List

But, maybe not everyone believes these

•

Paper and pencil

inventions are so wonderful. Do you think older people may be more resistant to

•

20 people between the ages of 16 and 30

technology, wanting to do things the way

•

20 people between the ages of 31 and 49

they have always done them? Perhaps they

•

20 people over age 50

like doing things the way they are

comfortable with, or perhaps they are confused by new technology.

Procedure

Many inventions have taken place in the last few years that we take for granted. For Create a short list of questions to ask in a example, if you watch reruns of the original survey about the use of new technology. The Star Trek episodes on TV, you are familiar survey should be similar to the following with the automatic opening of doors as example.

people approached them. Today, we don’t Answer Yes or No to these questions: give a second thought to doors opening by themselves as we walk into a department store or a supermarket!

1. Do you own a personal computer?

This project will conduct a survey of 2. Do you use e-mail regularly?

different age groups and ask them about their 3. Do you bank online?

use of new technology. This study will give 4. Do you know how to program and set the insight into how people of different ages are time on your VCR?

coping with these changes in society.

5. Do you have a cellular phone?

6. Do you use a bank ATM machine?

Project 43: High-Tech Times

174

Project 43: High-Tech Times

If you can’t get 20 people in each group to participate in the survey, get as many as Conclusion

you can. Calculate the percentage of people who answered Yes to each question in each Come to a conclusion as to whether or not group. For example, suppose 15 out of 20

your hypothesis was correct.

people surveyed in the first group answered Yes. Divide the number of Yes answers by the total number of people, and then multiply by 100 to get the percent:

Something More

(15/20) ϫ 100 = 75%

Were there any questions in which a greater number of older people had a Results

higher percentage of Yes answers?

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

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Project 44

Commercial TV

A comparison of programming to advertising content Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Advertising is important. Commercials

•

Behaviorial & Social

inform us of sales and new products that may be of help or enjoyment to us. Ads can also

•

Math & Computers

let us know how to save money. Nevertheless, sometimes TV advertising seems to take up a large portion of the hour compared to Purpose or Problem

program content time. On average, is the percentage of commercial-to-program content The purpose is to determine if there is more higher during the day than compared to the advertising content per hour during the day night? And is that average consistent among than during an hour of evening prime-time the various channels?

viewing (8 P.M. to 11 P.M.).

177

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If you are not home during the day, use a Hypothesis

VCR with a timer set to record from 2 P.M. to 3 P.M. Then, when you get home in the Hypothesize that more TV commercials are evening, you can watch the program and run per hour in the daytime than in the collect your data.

evening.

Because some channels are only seen over cable, and some channels are also broadcast over the airways, data must be Materials’ List

collected on both and averaged together.

Collect data (day and night) for a cable

•

Stop watch or a watch with a second

channel (Discovery Channel, the Learning hand

Channel, CNN Headline News, and so forth), and one for an over-the-air station (ABC,

•

VCR with blank video tape

NBC, CBS). Average the results together.

•

TV with cable-channel accessibility

Graph your results for presentation, using a computer program.

Procedure

Results

Collect data on the amount of commercial (advertising) time during a typical hour of Write down the results of your experiment.

daytime programming (2 P.M. to 3 P.M., for Document all observations and data

example) and a typical hour of prime time collected.

(8 P.M. to 9 P.M., for example). Collect this data over a five-day period, Monday through Friday. Add the data and divide by five to Conclusion

find a daily average.

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

Project 44: Commercial TV

178

Project 44: Commercial TV

Something More

1. What is the average length of time of a commercial spot (15, 30, or 60

seconds)? Compare the ad-time

lengths during the day, the evening, and between cable channels and the

big over-the-air networks (ABC,

NBC, and CBS).

2. Can you think of ways to use the time during commercial breaks, other than going to the kitchen for a snack? A gallon water jug could be filled (or partially filled to weigh less) to be used during commercials as a

dumbbell for getting mild exercise

during commercials.

3. The data you collected is baseline data, which someone could use five or ten years from now in a comparison.

Can you find out if someone gathered this data ten years ago? If so, compare it to your data.

179

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Project 45

Sold on Solar

The temperature in a climate as it relates to the amount of possible usable sunlight

Suggested Entry

Overview

Categories

Making use of energy from the Sun has many

•

Earth & Space

important benefits. Solar energy is a clean, renewable, and free source of fuel. It can be

•

Physics

used to generate electricity and make hot water for our homes. Solar panels can be mounted on the roof of a home to assist in Purpose or Problem

supplying hot water for the family, thus reducing the home’s hot water utility bill.

The purpose is to prove that temperature is Do solar panels only work for homes not a factor in determining if a location is located in warm or hot climates? No.

acceptable for solar-energy applications.

Temperature is not a factor, as this project will prove. If you live in a part of the country where it is cold in the winter, think about 181

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

sitting at a table next to a bright, sunny window. You can feel heat on your body.

Think about getting into a car on a sunny, VOLTMETER

cool day. The car’s interior is warmer than the weather outside. Think about how cold it is in the Arctic, yet it is a very sunny region.

Hypothesis

a plus (+) and a minus (–) terminal. Be sure to wrap the bare end of the plus lead of the Hypothesize that temperature is not a factor solar cell to the plus test probe on the in the amount of usable sunlight that can be voltmeter.

gathered in an area needed for solar-energy applications.

On a cold day, set the solar cell and voltmeter outside in an unobstructed area that is exposed to direct sunlight. Set a Materials’ List

thermometer next to it. Wait several minutes for the thermometer to adjust to the temperature. Record the voltage indicated on

•

Photovoltaic cell

the voltmeter and the temperature on the

•

DC voltmeters with a millivolt scale

thermometer.

•

Thermometer

Move the solar cell, voltmeter, and

•

A day when the temperature is much

thermometer indoors, and place them in a colder outdoors than inside

sunny window. Wait a few minutes to allow

•

Daily newspaper or almanac with the

the thermometer to adjust to the indoor times of sunrise and sunset

temperature. Record the voltage and thermometer readings. What is the difference

•

Pencil

in temperature? While there was a big difference in temperature, was there a significant difference in voltage?

Procedure

Another factor in determining if a

location is favorable for the installation of Connect a DC (direct current) voltmeter with solar panels is the amount of possible daily a millivolt scale across the leads (wires) sunshine. Use the formula:

extending from a solar cell. Small solar cells are available at local hobby shops and electronic parts chains. Be aware that the output of the solar cell has a polarity; it has Project 45: Sold on Solar

182

Project 45: Sold on Solar

minutes of the day the Sun could cast a shadow percent of possible sunshine =

————————————————————

total minutes of actual daylight

The “total minutes of actual daylight” can be found in your daily newspaper by finding the time of sunrise and sunset, and then Something More

calculating the time difference between them and converting that time to all minutes. The 1. If you have a relative who lives a far

“minutes of the day the Sun could cast a distance (in another state) from you, shadow” can be determined by taking a ask them if they would do the same

pencil or another object outside just after experiment as you just did. Compare sunrise and holding it a few inches above the their results to yours.

ground. When a clear and discernible shadow 2. Does the glass in a window block can be seen, record the time. Similarly, as some frequencies in the spectrum of sunset approaches, record the time when a light? Does it block or pass ultraviolet shadow is no longer discernible. Subtract the light? Does it block or pass infrared two times to find the minutes of strong light?

sunshine. Then, compute the percent of 3. Is the area you live in suitable possible sunshine by dividing shadow time (economical) for hot-water solar

by total daylight time.

collectors or photovoltaic solar-cell applications? What percentage of days per year does your location experience Results

overcast skies? Gather data from

weather sources using the Internet, Write down the results of your experiment.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Document all observations and data

Administration (NOAA), or local

collected.

weather authorities. How would you

construct a device that would monitor the amount of cloudiness that occurs Conclusion

during a day?

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

183

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Project 46

Getting to the Root of the Problem

A study of the effect of low water

on radish seedling root systems

Suggested Entry

Overview

Category

Plants gather water and nutrients from soil

•

Botany

through their root systems. Roots extend downward and outward to gather water. What if water is scarce? Will a plant’s roots grow Purpose or Problem

longer and will there be more of them, as they search for water?

The purpose is to discover if low-moisture levels will cause the roots of radish seedlings to grow more abundantly than those grown in soil with high-moisture levels. A secondary purpose is to discover the optimum amount of water for radish seedlings.

185

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

Using a marker or a pen with masking Hypothesis

tape, label each cup with a letter of the alphabet: Cup A, Cup B, Cup C, and so on Hypothesize that the root system of radish through Cup J.

seedlings will grow more abundantly (more Group the cups: Cups A, B, and C make mass and/or longer in length) in soil where up Group #1. Cups D, E, and F make up moisture is low compared to soil where Group #2. Cups G, H, and I make up Group moisture is high. Also hypothesize that a

#3. Cup J will stand alone.

point exists beyond which any further reduction in moisture will not cause more VEGETABLE

root growth but, instead, will cause health Radish

damage to the plant.

J

Materials’ List

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

•

Paper towels

•

Radish seeds (50 of them)

Group #1 will receive water daily. Cup A

•

Ten 8-ounce plastic drinking cups

will receive one teaspoon of water. Cup B

•

Potting soil

will get two teaspoons. Cup C will get three

•

Kitchen teaspoon measure

teaspoons.

•

Marker or pen and masking tape

Group #2 will receive water every other

•

Water

day. Cup D will receive one teaspoon of water. Cup E, two teaspoons. Cup F, three

•

Several weeks of time

teaspoons.

Group #3 will only receive water every Procedure

third day. Cup G, one teaspoon. Cup H, two teaspoons. Cup I, three teaspoons.

Germinate 50 radish seeds by covering them The seedlings in Cup J will be kept between layers of paper towel and keeping soaked with water daily, adding enough water them warm and moist for several days.

to keep the soil thoroughly wet.

Once the seeds have germinated and

We are using three seedlings per cup to begin to sprout roots and stems, select 30 of increase our sample size, thus giving more the best seedlings and discard the rest.

credence to our results.

Fill ten 8-ounce plastic drinking cups 3⁄

Set the cups in an area of equal lighting 4

full of potting soil. Plant three seedlings in and equal temperature (room temperature).

each cup.

Project 46: Getting to the Root of the Problem 186

Project 46: Getting to the Root of the Problem After many weeks, remove the seedlings from their cups and rinse the soil off their roots. Compare the root systems of all the Something More

plants.

Was your hypothesis correct? Was there a If a house plant is consistently given point beyond which any less amount of water water only down one side of the flower resulted in poor growth or healthy appearance pot, will the roots eventually grow toward of the plants? How was the health of the that side (hydrotropism)?

seedlings in Cup J? Is it possible to overwater a plant?

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Document all observations and data

collected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or not your hypothesis was correct.

187

This page intentionally left blank Index

AC (alternating current), 112

balance beam, 73

acid rain, 121–123

bananas

acidity, 95, 121–123

as fruit fly attractant, 127

advertising, TV, 177–179

mold on, 150–151

agar, 134–135

bases, 96

air. See also wind

beef, ground, 47–49

effect on evaporation, 146, 147

Behavioral & Social category

friction with, 14

Choices project, 75–78

mold transferred via, 149–151

Commercial TV project, 177–179

resistance, 13–15

In the Ear of the Beholder project, 29–32

air flow, 10–11

Flying, Walking, Crawling project, 169–171

alcohol

High-Tech Times project, 173–175

cooling effect of, 145–147

Melody Camouflage project, 17–19

evaporation of, 145–147

The Nose Knows project, 129–131

extracting chlorophyll with, 114–115

Not Just Lemonade project, 117–119

alkali, 96

Not till Christmas project, 137–139

alkalinity, 95, 121

Sounds Fishy project, 87–89

alluvial deposits, 83

Sweet Treat project, 55–58

alluvial formations, 83

Time for the Concert project, 165–167

alluvial runoff, 83–85

Vlip! project, 21–23

alternating current (AC), 112

Web Crawlers project, 157–159

altitude, 64, 65

A Better Burger project, 47–49

animals

bifilar pendulums, 16

acid rain and, 122, 123

Biochemistry category

bay salt content and, 25–26

Bold Mold project, 67–70

biological rhythms, 161–163

Germ Jungle project, 133–135

birds (nests), 5–7

Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4

dogs, 21–23

biological rhythms, 162, 163

fish temperature preferences, 87–89

bird nests, other creatures living in, 5–7

guinea pigs, 23

Bold Mold project, 67–70

response to sounds, 21–23

Botany category

ants. See also insects

Getting to the Root of the Problem project, 185–187

attraction to natural vs. artificial sugars, 55–58

Green No More project, 113–115

natural bait for, 169–171

Hardwood Café project, 153–155

natural pesticides for, 125–128

Night Watch project, 161–163

applesauce, mold inhibitor for, 105–107

Plants Exhale project, 79–81

artificial sweeteners, 55–58

Space Farm project, 141–143

ascorbic acid. See vitamin C

A Taste of Plant Acid project, 95–97

aspartame, 56, 57

Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4

audio. See sound

bots, 158

azimuth, 66

braces, 91–94

bracket fungi, 153–155

back bay salt content, 25–28

bread mold, 149–151

back bay water, 25–28

bugs. See insects

Backfield in Motion project, 109–112

businesses

bacteria

publicly traded, 41

detecting on public surfaces, 133–135

stock market investing, 41–45

health risks of, 134

stock splits, 100–103

identifying, 135

researching on Internet, 158

C, a Fantastic Vitamin project, 59–61

bait, soft drinks as, 169–171

Call options, 45

189

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carrots, vitamin C content of, 59–61

Earth & Space category

Caught in the Spotlight project, 51–54

Sold on Solar project, 181–183

CD (compact disc) technology, 18

Space Farm project, 141–143

Chemistry category

Zenith Is Not a Radio project, 63–66

A Better Burger project, 47–49

Earth Science category

C, a Fantastic Vitamin project, 59–61

Flying in the Wind project, 33–35

Got Salt project, 25–28

Go with the Flow project, 9–12

Less Is More project, 121–123

Got Salt project, 25–28

Not Just Lemonade project, 117–119

Less Is More project, 121–123

Sweet Treat project, 55–58

Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4

A Taste of Plant Acid project, 95–97

earthquakes, 16

Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4

electricity

chlorophyll, 68, 79, 113–115

alternating current (AC), 112

Choices project, 75–78

direct current (DC), 110

cinnamon, as mold inhibitor, 105–107

generated by solar energy, 181

circadian rhythms, 161–163

generated by wind, 33

cleaning products

magnetism and, 110

disinfectant, 134, 135

pH scale and, 96

lemon in, 117–119

positive, 96

coastal salt water flooding, 1–4

electromagnetic fields, 109–112

collagen, 59

elodea, 80, 81

color

engineering, types of, 91

gender preference for, 75–78

Engineering category

M&M experiment, 71–74

Cooled Off project, 145–147

object selection and, 75–78

Go with the Flow project, 9–12

in plants, 113–115, 162

Lighter Struts project, 37–40

Commercial TV project, 177–179

Parallelogram Prevention project, 91–94

commercials, TV, 177–179

Web Crawlers project, 157–159

compact disc (CD) technology, 18

entomology, 52

companies

Environmental Science category

publicly traded, 41

Bold Mold project, 67–70

stock market investing, 41–45

Flying in the Wind project, 33–35

stock splits, 100–103

Germ Jungle project, 133–135

Computers category. See Math & Computers Go with the Flow project, 9–12

category

Got Salt project, 25–28

Cooled Off project, 145–147

Green No More project, 113–115

crickets, temperature and, 165–167

Hardwood Café project, 153–155

cupcake experiment, 75–78

Less Is More project, 121–123

Melting Mountains project, 83–85

day traders, 100

Natural Fences project, 125–128

DC (direct current), 110

Night Watch project, 161–163

deciduous trees, 113

Pass the Mold project, 149–151

direct current (DC), 110

Space Farm project, 141–143

directories, 159

Sweet Treat project, 55–58

diseases

Time for the Concert project, 165–167

bacteria and, 133–135

Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4

mold and, 149

Who’s Home project, 5–7

transmitted by insects, 51–54

erosion, 83–85

disinfectant cleaners, 134, 135

evaporation

diversity, 43

alcohol, 145–147

dividends, 41

moving air and, 146, 147

dogs, response to sounds, 21–23

salt content and, 27

dolphins, 23

water, 121–123, 145–147

Earth

fat content, ground beef, 47–49

illumination of Sun on, 63–66

fats, described, 47–48

rotation of, 16

feeders, 166

tilt of, 63–64

financial investments, 41–45

Index

190

Index

financial resources, 101–102

household disinfectant cleaners, 134, 135

fish, water temperature preferences, 87–89

hydroponics, 141

flooding, salt water, 1–4

Flying, Walking, Crawling project, 169–171

ice, on mountains, 83–85

Flying in the Wind project, 33–35

illness

food. See also fruit; vegetables bacteria and, 133–135

mold on, 67–70, 149–150

mold and, 149

spoilage of, 67–70, 105–107

transmitted by insects, 51–54

storage of, 67–70

In the Ear of the Beholder project, 29–32

transferring mold between, 149–151

indexing software (robots), 158

food, growing in space, 141–143

insects. See also ants

Foucault, Jean, 14, 16

attracting with light, 51–54

fruit

attraction to natural vs. artificial sugars, 55–58

bananas as fruit fly attractant, 127

collecting, 51–54

grapefruits as natural pesticide, 126, 127

effect of temperature on, 165–167

lemons as natural pesticide, 126–127, 128

evaluating for health hazards, 51, 53

lemons in cleaning products, 117–119

fruit fly attractants, 125–128

mold on bananas, 150–151

living in bird nests, 5–7

mold on oranges, 150–151

natural bait for, 169–171

pH balance, 96

natural pesticides, 125–128

fruit flies, 125–128. See also insects soft drink preferences, 169–171

fungi, bracket, 153–155

Internet

financial resources on, 101–102

Galileo, 14

finding information on, 157–159

gender

investments and, 42, 43–44

adherence to instructions and, 137–139

monitoring stock prices, 101–102

color preferences, 75–78

search engines, 157–159

erroneously perceived sound and, 19

web crawlers, 157–159

olfactory identification and, 131

inverse-square law, 16

geotropism, 142

investments. See stock market Germ Jungle project, 133–135

germination, seed, 141–143

jet lag, 161

Getting to the Root of the Problem project, 185–187

Johnny Applesauce project, 105–107

Go with the Flow project, 9–12

goldfish, water temperature preferences, 87–89

Kelvin, Lord, 14, 16

Got Salt project, 25–28

kinetic energy, 13

grapefruit juice, 126, 127

Kinetic Pendulum project, 13–16

grass

germinating, 2

language, animals and, 21–23

killing with salt, 4

lawns, effect of salt water flooding on, 1–4

loss of color, 114, 115

lemon juice, 126–127, 128

sunlight deprivation, 115

lemons

grasshoppers, temperature and, 167

in cleaning products, 117–119

gravity

as pesticide, 126–127, 128

effect on radish-seed germination, 141–143

Less Is More project, 121–123

flow of water and, 83

light. See also sunlight

pendulum experiment, 13–14, 16

attracting insects with, 51–54

tide cycles and, 25

plant exposure to, 161–163

Green No More project, 113–115

plant-generated oxygen and, 79–81

ground beef, fat content in, 47–49

Lighter Struts project, 37–40

guinea pigs, 23

lighthouses, 9–12

litmus paper, 96

handedness, 75–78

Hardwood Café project, 153–155

magnetic field, 109–110, 112

Health category. See Medicine & Health category magnetism, 109–110

high-power electric lines, 109–110

materials

High-Tech Times project, 173–175

determining sample sizes, 71–74

house plants, 161–163. See also plants weight vs. strength, 37–40

191

Math & Computers category

physics of, 29–32

Commercial TV project, 177–179

in reproduction of audio, 17–19

In the Ear of the Beholder project, 29–32

social classification of, 29–32

High-Tech Times project, 173–175

sound masked by, 17–19

Kinetic Pendulum project, 13–16

tape hiss, 18–19

Lighter Struts project, 37–40

vs. music, 29–32

M&M’s Ring Around the World project, 71–74

white, 18–19

Split and Dip project, 99–103

The Nose Knows project, 129–131

Stock Up project, 41–45

Not Just Lemonade project, 117–119

Web Crawlers project, 157–159

Not till Christmas project, 137–139

Zenith Is Not a Radio project, 63–66

mechanical engineering, 91

objects

Medicine & Health category

selection of, 75–78

C, a Fantastic Vitamin project, 59–61

shape of, 9–12

Caught in the Spotlight project, 51–54

wind and, 9–12

Cooled Off project, 145–147

olfactory identification, 129–131

Natural Fences project, 125–128

oranges, mold on, 150–151

Pass the Mold project, 149–151

organisms

Sweet Treat project, 55–58

effect of electromagnetic field on, 109–112

Melody Camouflage project, 17–19

living in bird nests, 5–7

Melting Mountains project, 83–85

single-celled, 109–112

meteorology, 34

oscillation periods, 14

Microbiology category

oxygen

Backfield in Motion project, 109–112

detecting presence of, 81

Bold Mold project, 67–70

produced by plants, 79–81

Germ Jungle project, 133–135

Hardwood Café project, 153–155

Parallelogram Prevention project, 91–94

Johnny Applesauce project, 105–107

parasites, 153–155

Pass the Mold project, 149–151

Pass the Mold project, 149–151

Who’s Home project, 5–7

pendular motion, 13–16

mildew, 67

pendulum, 13–16

M&M’s Ring Around the World project, 71–74

percentage, determining, 72–73

mold

pesticides, natural, 125–128

on bread, 149–151

pests, picnic, 169–171

diseases and, 149

petri dish, 134–135

effect of environment on, 67–70

pH levels

effect of sunlight on, 68, 70

acidity in rain water, 121–123

inhibitors, 68, 105–107, 150

measuring, 95–97

transferred via air, 149–151

pH scale, 96, 121, 122

transferring between foods, 149–151

pH test kit, 96, 122–123

momentum, 13–14

phloem, 154

mountain erosion, 83–85

photosynthesis, 113

music

Physics category

masked by noise, 17–19

Cooled Off project, 145–147

memories and, 32

In the Ear of the Beholder project, 29–32

tape hiss, 17–18

Go with the Flow project, 9–12

vs. noise, 29–32

Kinetic Pendulum project, 13–16

Melting Mountains project, 83–85

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Parallelogram Prevention project, 91–94

(NOAA) weather station, 26

Sold on Solar project, 181–183

Natural Fences project, 125–128

Space Farm project, 141–143

Night Watch project, 161–163

picnic pests, 169–171

nitrogen, 121

pitch, 85

nitrogen oxide, 122

plants. See also vegetables NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric acid rain and, 123

Administration) weather station, 26

changing exposure to light/dark, 161–163

noise

chlorophyll in, 68, 79, 113–115

described, 29

circadian rhythms, 161–163

Index

192

Index

color in, 113–115, 162

A Taste of Plant Acid, 95–97

effect of low water on seedlings, 185–187

Time for the Concert, 165–167

fungi, 153–155

Vitamin C, 59–61

loss of color in, 113–115

Vlip!, 21–23

oxygen produced by, 79–81

Water, Water, Everywhere, 1–4

parasites, 153–155

Web Crawlers, 157–159

radish-seed germination, 141–143

Who’s Home, 5–7

rest cycles, 163

Zenith Is Not a Radio, 63–66

root systems, 185–187

psychoacoustical masking effect, 18

saprophytes, 153–155

publicly traded companies, 41

Plants Exhale project, 79–81

Put options, 45

plumb, 13

plumb bob, 15

radish seedlings, effect of low water on, 185–187

plumb line, 15

radish-seed germination, 141–143

plumb point, 14

rain, acid, 121–123

polarity, 182

ribbon wind indicators, 34–35

potential energy, 13

robots, 158

preservatives, 68, 106

rolling stock, 158

projects

root systems, effect of low water on, 185–187

Backfield in Motion, 109–112

A Better Burger, 47–49

saccharin, 56, 57

Bold Mold, 67–70

safety stress range, 37–40

C, a Fantastic Vitamin, 59–61

salt

Caught in the Spotlight, 51–54

content in back bay water, 25–28

Choices, 75–78

killing grass/weeds with, 4

Commercial TV, 177–179

as preservative, 68

Cooled Off, 145–147

salt water flooding, 1–4

In the Ear of the Beholder, 29–32

sample sizes, determining, 71–74

Flying, Walking, Crawling, 169–171

saprophytes, 153–155

Flying in the Wind, 33–35

search engines, 157–159

Germ Jungle, 133–135

seed germination, 141–143

Getting to the Root of the Problem, 185–187

seedlings, effect of low water on, 185–187

Go with the Flow, 9–12

sex. See gender

Got Salt, 25–28

shelf fungi, 153–155

Green No More, 113–115

short-term investing, 100–101

Hardwood Café, 153–155

single-celled organisms, effect of electromagnetic field High-Tech Times, 173–175

on, 109–112

Johnny Applesauce, 105–107

smells, identifying, 129–131

Kinetic Pendulum, 13–16

snow, on mountains, 83–85

Less Is More, 121–123

Social. See Behavioral & Social Lighter Struts, 37–40

soft drinks, insect preferences for, 169–171

Melody Camouflage, 17–19

software/communications engineering, 157–159

Melting Mountains, 83–85

solar cells, 182

M&M’s Ring Around the World, 71–74

solar energy, 181

Natural Fences, 125–128

solar panels, 181–183

Night Watch, 161–163

solar-energy applications, 181–183

The Nose Knows, 129–131

Sold on Solar project, 181–183

Not Just Lemonade, 117–119

songs. See music

Not till Christmas, 137–139

sound. See also music; noise Parallelogram Prevention, 91–94

categorization of, 30–32

Pass the Mold, 149–151

dog response to, 21–23

Plants Exhale, 79–81

erroneously perceived, 17–19

Sold on Solar, 181–183

human response to, 29–32

Sounds Fishy, 87–89

masked by noise, 17–19

Space Farm, 141–143

Sounds Fishy project, 87–89

Split and Dip, 99–103

Space. See Earth & Space Stock Up, 41–45

Space Farm project, 141–143

Sweet Treat, 55–58

spices, 105, 107

193

spiders, 158, 159

TV advertising, 177–179

Split and Dip project, 99–103

stock charts, 101–102

unit cost, 74

stock market

investment concepts, 41–45

vegetables. See also plants rolling stock, 158

chlorophyll in, 115

testing strategies for, 99–103

effect of low water on seedlings, 185–187

stock splits, 100–103

pH level of, 95–97

Stock Up project, 41–45

radish-seed germination, 141–143

stream table, 12

velocity, wind, 9–12

structures, bracing, 91–94

vitamin C, 59–61

struts, aircraft, 37–40

Vitamin C project, 59–61

sucrose, 56

Vlip! project, 21–23

sugars

voltmeter, 182

as insect attractant, 170

natural vs. artificial, 55–58

water

as preservative, 68

acidity in, 121–123

sulfur, 121

cooling effect of, 145–147

sulfur dioxide, 122

effect of low water on seedlings, 185–187

Sun

evaporation, 121–123, 145–147

altitude, 64, 65

flow of, 12

azimuth, 66

fresh, 1–4

daily zenith, 63–66

rain, 121–123

sunlight

salt, 1–4

climate temperature, 181–183

temperature (for goldfish), 87–89

deprivation (grass), 115

Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4

effect on mold, 68, 70

weather radios, 26

photosynthesis and, 113–115

Web Crawlers project, 157–159

plant exposure to, 161–163

white noise, 18–19

plant-generated oxygen and, 79–81

Who’s Home project, 5–7

solar panels and, 181–183

wind. See also air

Sweet Treat project, 55–58

above ground vs. ground level, 33–35

sweeteners

defense against, 10

as insect attractant, 170

effect on lighthouses, 9–12

natural vs. artificial, 55–58

high-velocity, 9–12

swing period, 14

object shape and, 9–12

resistance, 10

tape hiss, 17–18

speed, 34

tare weight, 49, 84

velocity, 33–35

A Taste of Plant Acid project, 95–97

wind-chill factor, 147

tea, as insect deterrent, 126

wood, weight vs. strength, 37–40

technical analysis, 44

worms, natural pesticides for, 128

technology, adapting to, 173–175

temperature

xylem, 154

effect on goldfish, 87–89

effect on insects, 165–167

zenith, Sun, 63–66

solar panels and, 181–183

Zenith Is Not a Radio project, 63–66

solar-energy applications and, 181–183

Zoology category

The Nose Knows project, 129–131

Flying, Walking, Crawling project, 169–171

ticker symbol, 102

Natural Fences project, 125–128

tidal changes, 25–28

Sounds Fishy project, 87–89

tide cycles, 25–28

Sweet Treat project, 55–58

tide tables, 26

Time for the Concert project, 165–167

Time for the Concert project, 165–167

Vlip! project, 21–23

trees, fungi on, 153–155

Who’s Home project, 5–7

Index

194

Table of Contents

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